Roanoke Colony

The Roanoke Colony was an early English settlement in North America, led by Sir Walter Raleigh. The first group of settlers arrived in 1585 on Roanoke Island, but they left after a year due to problems with nearby Native American tribes and lack of supplies. A second group, led by John White, arrived in 1587 with the goal of building a permanent town called the "Cittie of Raleigh" near the Chesapeake Bay.

When White returned to England to get more supplies, a war delayed his trip back to Roanoke. When he finally came back in 1590, he discovered the colony had been abandoned. The only clue was the word "CROATOAN" carved into a wall, which made White think the settlers had moved to Croatoan Island. However, he could not search further because of bad weather and had to sail back to England.

The story of the missing settlers became famous over time. Some people thought the colonists had joined nearby tribes, while others believed something bad had happened to them. Even though many looked for answers, the truth about what happened to the settlers remains a mystery today. The story of Roanoke Colony continues to capture people's imagination, especially the tale of Virginia Dare, one of the first English babies born in America.

Background

The Outer Banks were explored in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, who thought Pamlico Sound was the Pacific Ocean and believed the islands were connected to land. He told King Francis I of France and King Henry VIII of England about this, but neither king decided to do anything about it.

In 1578, Queen Elizabeth I gave Sir Humphrey Gilbert permission to explore and settle lands not already owned by Christian countries. Gilbert helped end a rebellion in Ireland's Munster in the early 1570s. Though the queen's permission was unclear, Gilbert thought it meant he could claim any land in the New World north of Spanish Florida. He briefly claimed St. John's, Newfoundland in 1583 as England’s first territory in North America, but he disappeared during his trip back to England.

After Gilbert died in 1583, Queen Elizabeth split his permission between his brother Adrian Gilbert and his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh. Adrian received rights to Newfoundland and areas further north, where people thought a shortcut to Asia might be found. Raleigh received lands further south, though Spain already claimed much of that area. Richard Hakluyt encouraged England to take advantage of the opportunity in Raleigh’s area.

Raleigh’s permission, given to him on March 25, 1584, required him to start a colony by 1591 or lose his rights. He was allowed to find, settle, and control new lands. The goal was to create a base for sending ships to attack Spain’s treasure ships. However, Raleigh was not allowed to leave the queen’s side, so he sent others to lead the trips while he stayed in London managing everything from far away.

Amadas–Barlowe expedition

Sir Walter Raleigh quickly planned a trip to explore his land. It left England on April 27, 1584, with two ships. Philip Amadas led the bigger ship, and Arthur Barlowe led the other.

The ships sailed south to catch the trade winds and then west to the West Indies, where they got fresh water. They continued north until July 4, when they saw land now called Cape Fear. They landed on July 13 at a place north of Hatorask Island, named "Port Ferdinando" after the pilot, Simon Fernandes.

The Native Americans in the area had seen Europeans before. The Secotan people, who lived on Roanoke Island, met the English and became friends. The Secotan leader, Wingina, was hurt in a fight, so his brother Granganimeo met with them instead.

When they returned to England in late 1584, Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe praised the tribes' kindness and the good location of Roanoke. They brought back two natives: Wanchese, a Secotan, and Manteo, a Croatan. Queen Elizabeth liked the report and, in 1585, named the land Virginia and made Raleigh its governor. He then looked for people to help build a colony.

Lane colony

See also: List of colonists at Roanoke

For the first colony in Virginia, Raleigh planned a largely military operation focused on exploring and evaluating natural resources. The intended number of colonists was 69, but approximately 600 men were sent on the voyage, with about half intended to stay at the colony, to be followed by a second wave later. Ralph Lane was appointed governor of the colony, and Philip Amadas would serve as admiral, although the fleet commander Sir Richard Grenville led the overall mission. Civilian attendants included Joachim Gans, a metallurgist, Thomas Harriot, a scientist, and John White, an artist. Manteo and Wanchese, returning home from their visit to England, were also passengers on the voyage.

Voyage

The fleet consisted of seven ships: The galleass Tiger (Grenville's flagship, with Fernandes as pilot), the flyboat Roebuck (captained by John Clarke), Red Lion (under the command of George Raymond), Elizabeth (captained by Thomas Cavendish), Dorothy (Raleigh's personal ship, perhaps captained by Arthur Barlowe) and two small pinnaces.

On April 9, 1585, the fleet departed Plymouth, heading south through the Bay of Biscay. A severe storm off the coast of Portugal separated Tiger from the rest of the fleet and sank one of the pinnaces. Fortunately, Fernandes had a plan for such an occurrence, wherein the ships would meet up at Mosquetal, on the south coast of Puerto Rico. Proceeding alone, Tiger made good speed for the Caribbean, arriving at the rendezvous point on May 11, ahead of the other ships.

While awaiting the fleet, Grenville established a base camp, where his crew could rest and defend themselves from Spanish forces. Lane's men used the opportunity as practice for building the fortifications that would be needed at the new colony. The crew also set about replacing the lost pinnace, forging nails and sawing local lumber to construct a new ship. Elizabeth arrived on May 19, shortly after the completion of the fort and pinnace.

The remainder of the fleet never arrived at Mosquetal. At least one of the ships encountered difficulties near Jamaica and ran out of supplies, causing its captain to send twenty of his crew ashore. Eventually Roebuck, Red Lion, and Dorothy continued to the Outer Banks, arriving by mid-June. Red Lion left about thirty men on Croatoan Island and departed for privateering in Newfoundland. In the meantime, Grenville established contact with local Spanish authorities, in the hopes of obtaining fresh provisions. When the Spanish failed to deliver the promised supplies, Grenville suspected they would soon attack, so he and his ships abandoned the temporary fort.

Grenville captured two Spanish ships in the Mona Passage, adding them to his fleet. Lane took one of these ships to Salinas Bay, where he captured salt mounds collected by the Spanish. Lane again built fortifications to protect his men as they brought the salt aboard. Grenville's ships then sailed to La Isabela, where the Spanish set aside hostilities to trade with the well-armed English fleet. On June 7, Grenville left Hispaniola to continue to the Outer Banks.

The fleet sailed through an inlet at Wococon Island (near present-day Ocracoke Inlet) on June 26. Tiger struck a shoal, ruining most of the food supplies and nearly destroying the ship. There are indications that Grenville's fleet was supposed to spend the winter with the new colony, perhaps to immediately begin using it as a privateering base. The wreck of Tiger, however, made that impossible. The remaining provisions could not support a settlement as large as had been planned. Moreover, the shallow inlets of the Outer Banks made the region unsuitable as a base for large ships. The colony's top priority would now be to locate a better harbour.

After repairs, Tiger continued with the rest of the fleet to Port Ferdinando, where they reunited with Roebuck and Dorothy. The men left behind by Red Lion were presumably also located during this time. On August 5, John Arundell took command of one of the faster vessels and set sail for England, to report the expedition's safe arrival.

Establishment of the colony

The loss of provisions from the Tiger meant that the colony would support far fewer settlers than originally planned. Grenville decided that only about 100 men would stay with Lane, which would be enough to fulfill the colony's objectives until another fleet, scheduled to leave England in June 1585, could deliver a second wave of colonists and supplies. However, Grenville could not know that this expedition had been redirected to Newfoundland, to alert fishing fleets that the Spanish had begun seizing English commercial vessels in retaliation for attacks by English privateers. Until a resupply mission could be arranged, Lane's colony would be heavily dependent on the generosity of the natives.

While the Tiger was under repair, Grenville organized an expedition to explore Pamlico Sound and the Secotan villages of Aquascogoc, Pamlico, and Secotan. His party made contact with the locals, presenting Harriot and White with an opportunity to extensively study Native American society. Although much of their research did not survive the 1586 evacuation of the colony, Harriot's extensive survey of Virginia's inhabitants and natural resources was published in 1588, with engravings of White's illustrations included in the 1590 edition.

Following this initial exploration, a silver cup was reported missing. Believing the item stolen, Grenville sent Amadas to lead a detachment back to Aquascogoc to demand the return of the missing property. When the villagers did not produce the cup, the English decided that severe retribution was necessary in order to avoid the appearance of weakness. Amadas and his men burnt down the entire town and its crops, sending the natives fleeing.

Manteo arranged a meeting for Grenville and Lane with Granganimeo, to provide land for the English settlement on Roanoke Island. Both sides agreed that the island was strategically located for access to the ocean and to avoid detection from Spanish patrols. Lane began construction of a fort on the north side of the island. There are no surviving renderings of the Roanoke fort, but it was likely similar in structure to the one at Mosquetal.

Grenville set sail for England aboard the Tiger on August 25, 1585. Days later, in Bermuda, Grenville raided a large Spanish galleon, the Santa Maria de San Vicente, which had become separated from the rest of its fleet. The merchant ship, which Grenville took back to England as a prize, was loaded with enough treasure to make the entire Roanoke expedition profitable, spurring excitement in Queen Elizabeth's court about Raleigh's colonisation efforts.

The Roebuck left Roanoke on September 8, 1585, leaving behind one of the pinnaces under the command of Amadas. Records indicate that 107 men remained with Lane at the colony. However, historians disagree as to whether White returned to England with Grenville, or spent the winter at Roanoke despite his absence from the list of colonists.

Exploration

Many of the colonists had joined the mission expecting to discover sources of gold and silver. When no such sources were located, these men became dispirited and decided the entire operation was a waste of their time. The English also researched where the local Native Americans obtained their copper, but ultimately never tracked the metal to its origin. The colonists spent the autumn of 1585 acquiring corn from the neighboring villages, to augment their limited supplies. The colony apparently obtained enough corn (along with venison, fish, and oysters) to sustain them through the winter. Little information survives, however, about what transpired at the colony between September 1585 and March 1586, making a full assessment of the winter impossible. The colonists most likely exhausted their English provisions and American corn by October, and the resulting monotony of their remaining food sources no doubt contributed to the men's low morale.

Amadas spent the winter exploring Chesapeake Bay, traveling as far as Cape Henry and the James River. While there his party made contact with the Chesapeake villages of Chesepioc and Skicóak. The Secotans had described Skicóak as the largest city in the region, possibly leading the English to expect something like the wealthy Inca and Aztec kingdoms encountered by the Spanish. Amadas instead found a more modest settlement, although he was impressed with the area's climate and soil quality. Harriot and Gans explored the Virginia territory, meeting Native American tribes and taking stock of natural resources. During his travels, Harriot and his assistants collected data that would eventually be used to produce White's La Virginea Pars map.

Although 16th-century science could not explain the phenomenon, Harriot noticed that each town the colonists visited quickly suffered a deadly epidemic, which may have been influenza or smallpox. Some of the Secotan suspected the disease was caused by supernatural forces unleashed by the English. When Wingina fell sick, his own people could not treat him, but he recovered after requesting prayers from the English. Impressed, Wingina asked the colonists to share this power with other stricken communities, which only hastened the spread of disease. The epidemic likely had a severe impact on the fall harvest, at a time when Lane's colony would be heavily dependent on its neighbors to supplement its limited food supply.

Hostilities and food shortages

By spring, relations between the Secotan and the colony were strained, most likely due to the colony's over-reliance on Secotan food. The death of Granganimeo, who had been a powerful advocate for the colony, apparently helped to turn Wingina against the English. Wingina changed his name to "Pemisapan" ("one who watches"), suggesting a newly cautious and vigilant policy, and established a new temporary tribal capital on Roanoke Island. The English did not initially recognize that these developments represented a threat to their interests.

In March, Lane consulted Pemisapan about a plan to explore the mainland beyond Secotan territory. Pemisapan supported the plan and advised Lane that the Chowanoke leader Menatonon was meeting with his allies to plan an attack on the English, and that three thousand warriors had gathered at Choanoac. At the same time, Pemisapan sent word to Menatonon that the English would be coming, ensuring that both sides would expect hostilities. When Lane's well-armed party arrived at Choanoac, he found representatives of the Chowanoke, Mangoak, Weapemeoc, and Moratuc. Since this gathering was not planning an attack, Lane caught them by surprise. He easily captured Menatonon, who informed him that it was Pemisapan who had requested the council in the first place.

Menatonon quickly gained Lane's trust by offering information about lucrative opportunities in lands the English had not yet discovered. He described a rich and powerful king to the northeast (presumably the leader of the Powhatan), warning that Lane should bring a considerable force if he sought to make contact. Menatonon also corroborated rumors Lane had heard about a sea just beyond the head of the Roanoke River, apparently confirming English hopes of finding access to the Pacific Ocean. The chief's son Skiko described a place to the west called "Chaunis Temoatan" rich in a valuable metal, which Lane thought could be copper or perhaps even gold.

Based on this information, Lane envisioned a detailed plan in which his forces would divide into two groups – one traveling north up the Chowan River, the other along the Atlantic coast—to resettle at Chesapeake Bay. However, he decided to defer this mission until the colony received fresh supplies, which Grenville had promised would arrive by Easter. In the meantime, Lane ransomed Menatonon and had Skiko sent back to Roanoke as a hostage. He proceeded with forty men for about 100 miles (160 km) up the Roanoke River in search of Chaunis Temotan, but they found only deserted villages and warriors lying in ambush. Lane had expected the Moratuc to provide provisions for him along his route, but Pemisapan had sent word that the English were hostile and villagers should withdraw from the river with their food.

Lane and his party returned to the colony shortly after Easter, half-starved and empty-handed. During their absence, rumors had spread that they had been killed, and Pemisapan had been preparing to withdraw the Secotan from Roanoke Island and leave the colony to starve. There was no sign of Grenville's resupply fleet, which had not yet even left England. According to Lane, Pemisapan was so surprised that Lane returned alive from the Roanoke River mission that he reconsidered his plans. Ensenore, an elder among Pemisapan's council, argued in favor of the English. Later, an envoy for Menatonon informed Lane that the Weapemeoc leader Okisko had pledged fealty to Queen Elizabeth and Sir Walter Raleigh. This shift in the balance of power in the region further deterred Pemisapan from following through on his plans against the colony. He instead ordered his people to sow crops and build fishing weirs for the settlers.

The renewed accord between the English and the Secotan was short-lived. On April 20 Ensenore died, depriving the colony of its last advocate in Pemisapan's inner circle. Wanchese had risen to become a senior advisor, and his time among the English had convinced him that they were a threat. Pemisapan evacuated the Secotan from Roanoke, destroyed the fishing weirs, and ordered them not to sell food to the English. Left to their own devices, the English had no way to produce enough food to sustain the colony. Lane ordered his men to break up into small groups to forage and beg for food in the Outer Banks and the mainland.

Lane continued to keep Skiko as a hostage. Although Pemisapan met regularly with Skiko and believed him sympathetic to the anti-English cause, Skiko sought to honor his father's intention of maintaining relations with the colony. Skiko informed Lane that Pemisapan planned to organize a war council meeting on June 10 with various regional powers. With the copper the Secotan had gained from trading with the colony, Pemisapan was able to offer substantial inducements to other tribes to side with him in a final offensive against the English. Oksiko declined to get involved, although individual Weapemeocs were permitted to participate. The plan of attack was to ambush Lane and other key leaders as they slept at the colony, and then signal for a general attack on the rest. Based on this information, Lane sent disinformation to the Secotan indicating that an English fleet had arrived, to force Pemisapan's hand.

Forced to accelerate his schedule by the possibility of English reinforcements, Pemisapan gathered as many allies as he could for a meeting on May 31 at Dasamongueponke. That evening, Lane attacked the warriors posted at Roanoke, hoping to prevent them from alerting the mainland the following morning. On June 1, Lane, his top officers, and twenty-five men visited Dasamongueponke under the pretense of discussing a Secotan attempt to free Skiko. Once they were admitted into the council, Lane gave the signal for his men to attack. Pemisapan was shot and fled into the woods, but Lane's men caught up to him and brought back his severed head. The head was impaled outside the colony's fort.

Evacuation

In June, the colonists made contact with the fleet of Sir Francis Drake, on his way back to England from successful campaigns in Santo Domingo, Cartagena, and St. Augustine. During these raids, Drake had acquired refugees, slaves, and hardware with the intent of delivering them to Raleigh's colony. Upon learning of the colony's misfortunes, Drake agreed to leave behind four months of supplies and one of his ships, the Francis. However, a hurricane hit the Outer Banks, sweeping the Francis out to sea.

After the storm, Lane persuaded his men to evacuate the colony, and Drake agreed to take them back to England. Manteo and an associate, Towaye, joined them. Three of Lane's colonists were left behind and never heard from again. Because the colony was abandoned, it is unclear what became of the slaves and refugees Drake had meant to place there. There is no record of them arriving in England with the fleet, and it is possible Drake left them on Roanoke with some of the goods he had previously set aside for Lane. Drake's fleet, along with Lane's colonists, reached England in July 1586. Upon arrival, the colonists introduced tobacco, maize, and potatoes to England.

Grenville's detachment

A single supply ship, sent by Raleigh, arrived at Roanoke just days after Drake evacuated the colony. The crew could not find any trace of the colonists and left. Two weeks later, Grenville's relief fleet finally arrived with a year's worth of supplies and reinforcements of 400 men. Grenville conducted an extensive search and interrogated three natives, one of whom finally related an account of the evacuation. The fleet returned to England, leaving behind a small detachment of fifteen men both to maintain an English presence and to protect Raleigh's claim to Roanoke Island.

According to the Croatan, this contingent was attacked by an alliance of mainland tribes shortly after Grenville's fleet left. Five of the English were away gathering oysters when two of the attackers, appearing unarmed, approached the encampment and asked to meet with two Englishmen peacefully. One of the Native Americans concealed a wooden sword, which he used to kill an Englishman. Another 28 attackers revealed themselves, but the other Englishman escaped to warn his unit. The natives set fire to the house where the English kept their food stores, thus forcing the men to take up whatever arms were handy. A second Englishman was killed; the remaining nine retreated to the shore, and fled the island on their boat. They found their four compatriots returning from the creek, picked them up, and continued onto a small island near the entrance to the Hatteras harbor. The thirteen survivors were never seen again.

Lost colony

See also: List of colonists at Roanoke

Sir Walter Raleigh wanted to try again after the first colony failed. This time, they chose a new place but faced many problems. The group included families but no soldiers to protect them.

The leaders of the colony faced many challenges with the local people and had to move to a new spot. The leader had to go back to England for help, but when he returned in 1590, he found the colony empty. The only clues were some carvings on a tree and a post.

The Spanish were worried about English activities in North America and sent people to look for the colony, but they did not find it.

When the leader finally returned in 1590, he searched for the colony but could not find anyone. They had left signs indicating they might have moved to Croatoan Island, but the leader could not continue his search due to problems with his ship.

Investigations into Roanoke

Although the leader of the Roanoke Colony, John White, failed to find his colonists in 1590, his report suggested they had moved to a new place and might still be alive. However, it helped Sir Walter Raleigh keep his claim on the land in Virginia. In 1595, during Raleigh’s voyage, he said he was searching for the lost settlers, but later admitted this was to hide his real goal of finding gold.

In 1602, Raleigh funded another mission to the Outer Banks to search for the settlers, led by Samuel Mace. However, the main focus was harvesting a valuable plant far from the island, and bad weather prevented them from staying long. In 1603, another expedition led by Bartholomew Gilbert aimed to find the settlers but ended tragically when Gilbert and others were killed by Native Americans.

After the Jamestown settlement began in 1607, John Smith heard from local leaders about places where people wore European-style clothes. He made a map showing these spots, including one where four settlers were said to remain. Smith planned to search but never did. Later, there were reports that the settlers had been attacked, though the truth of these stories is unclear.

In the early 1600s, William Strachey wrote about the area, suggesting the settlers had lived peacefully with a tribe before being attacked. He believed only a few survived and moved far away. In the early 1700s, explorer John Lawson visited the region and found signs of English presence, like old forts and coins, and thought some settlers might have joined the local community.

Scientific research

Research into the disappearance of the 1587 colonists mostly stopped after an investigation in 1701. But in the 1800s, people became very interested again, leading to many studies over the years.

During the 1930s, efforts began to protect the old earthwork where the colony once stood. In 1941, it became part of the Fort Raleigh National Historic Site, and in 1950, the earthwork was rebuilt to look like it did long ago.

In 1998, scientists studied tree rings and found that a severe drought happened between 1587 and 1589, which may have affected the colony's food supply.

Since 2005, scientists have tried to connect the colonists to possible Native American descendants using DNA tests. While this work is challenging, it continues to this day.

Main article: Fort Raleigh National Historic Site

Archaeological research

1887–present: Archaeological evidence

Archaeological research on Roanoke Island started in 1887 when a burial site was found. More digging happened later, but most finds could not be linked to the famous 1587 colony. After a hurricane in 1995, a ring was found that looked special at first but later tests showed it was not as important as people thought.

One big problem for scientists is that many old items could have come from earlier settlements or from local Native Americans. They think more of the colony might be underwater because the shoreline has changed a lot over time.

2011–present; new archaeological sites

In 2011, researchers found a hidden symbol on an old map that might show where a fort was. In 2015, they started digging at this spot and found pieces of old pottery and weapons. They think these items might show that a few settlers lived there peacefully.

More recent digs have found European items at Native American villages, suggesting the settlers may have lived among them. In 2025, more pieces of old metal were found, which scientists think could prove settlers were on the island, though this is still being studied.

Hypotheses about the colony's disappearance

Without clear evidence of what happened to the Lost Colony, many ideas about their fate have been discussed since the 1590s. Scholars sometimes find these ideas very exciting, but they often lack strong support.

When John White returned in 1590, there was no sign of fighting or that the colonists had left in a hurry, even though the place was protected. No bones or graves were found, suggesting everyone was alive when they left. The word "CROATOAN" was written, which matched the plan to leave a message there if they moved, showing they hoped to be found.

Integration with local tribes

One idea is that the missing colonists might have joined nearby Native American tribes. If this happened, they would have used up their European supplies and slowly adopted the local way of life. People who left European society for a long time often did not want to return, so it’s possible the colonists or their descendants stayed with the tribes.

It’s unclear which tribe they joined, but some think it might have been the Croatan, ancestors of today’s Lumbee tribe. Other tribes mentioned include the Catawba and the Coree. Some reports from the 1600s told of pale-skinned, blond-haired people among Native American groups, which some think were the colonists. However, these could also be explained by a higher rate of albinism in Native Americans.

An archaeologist found European items, like part of a sword, at a Native American village site, which might show the colonists joined local tribes.

Attempt to return to England

Another idea is that the colonists tried to sail back to England in a small ship called a pinnace that was left behind. If the ship was lost at sea, that would explain why there was no trace of them. The colonists might have been sailors who could try this journey. They might have tried a direct route to avoid Spanish attacks or sailed north to meet English fishing ships.

The pinnace wasn’t big enough for everyone, and they would need extra supplies for such a long trip. They might have built another ship, but even then, some colonists would still be left behind in Virginia.

Spanish attack

Spanish forces were looking for the colony because they did not recognize England’s right to settle there. The colonists likely knew of the danger from past attacks, but the Spanish were still searching for them as late as 1600, showing even they did not know what happened.

CORA tree

In 2006, a writer thought a southern live oak tree on Hatteras Island, with the word “CORA” carved in its bark, might be a message from the colonists. This idea comes from local legends. However, tests could not determine the tree’s age, and it’s hard to say when the carving was made.

Dare Stones

Main article: Dare Stones

Between 1937 and 1941, several stones were found with writings said to be from Eleanor Dare, mother of Virginia Dare. They told of the colonists’ travels and deaths. Most experts now think these stones are fake, as they were linked to one stonecutter. One stone is sometimes seen as different and possibly real, based on its language and chemistry.

In popular culture

Sir Walter Raleigh faced criticism for not helping the colony of 1587. Writers and plays often told stories about the settlers, especially a baby girl named Virginia Dare, who was the first English child born in what is now the United States. These stories turned the colony into a famous part of American history.

The idea of the "Lost Colony" became popular in books and plays. Over time, the story was used in different ways, sometimes in movies and TV shows. The word "Croatoan" from the colony has appeared in many stories, often in mysterious or spooky ways.