Congress of Berlin

The Congress of Berlin was a meeting that took place from June 13 to July 13, 1878, in order to change the rules set by an earlier agreement between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. This earlier agreement had ended a war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, but it caused problems because it gave Russia too much power in a part of Europe called the Balkans.

Anton von Werner's painting, Congress of Berlin (1881), depicting the final meeting at the Reich Chancellery on 13 July 1878. Bismarck (representing Germany) is shown in the centre, between Gyula Andrássy (Austria-Hungary) and Pyotr Shuvalov (Russia). On the left are Alajos Károlyi (Austria-Hungary), Alexander Gorchakov (Russia) (seated) and Benjamin Disraeli (Great Britain). On the far right is the Ottoman delegation; showing from left to right, Sadullah Pasha, Karatheodori Pasha, and Mehmed Ali Pasha.

Several important countries took part in the Congress. These included Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Germany. Leaders from Greece, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro also attended. The goal was to find a way to keep peace and prevent war by changing borders and rules in the area.

The Congress led to a new agreement called the Treaty of Berlin. This treaty changed the borders of many places. For example, Austria-Hungary took control of a region called Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Britain took control of Cyprus. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro were recognized as independent countries. Although this agreement helped avoid war at the time, it left many people unhappy. Some countries felt they did not get enough land, and tensions continued to grow in the Balkans for many years after.

Background

Pro-Greek ethnic map of the Balkans by Ioannis Gennadius, published by the English cartographer E. Stanford in 1877

In the years before the Congress of Berlin, many people in Russia and the Balkans wanted to unite all the Balkan Slavs under one ruler. This idea, called Pan-Slavism, aimed to create a big state led by Russia. If this happened, Russia would gain control of important waterways like the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, giving them more power.

The Treaty of San Stefano had created a large area called "Greater Bulgaria," which many opposed because it showed Russia's desire to control southeastern Europe. Different groups, like Pan-Germanism and Pan-Italianism, also had dreams of uniting their own people. The main question at the Congress of Berlin was how to end Ottoman rule in the Balkans and what that would mean for the future.

Great powers in the Balkans

The Balkans were an important area where big European countries tried to gain influence in the second half of the 19th century. Russia wanted to protect people who shared its culture and also to gain more control over the Mediterranean Sea. Britain, on the other hand, wanted to stop Russia from becoming too powerful.

Russia and Austria-Hungary, two countries very interested in the Balkans, were allies with Germany through the League of Three Emperors. This group was created to support monarchies across Europe. Because of this alliance, Germany had to decide which of its friends to support during discussions about the Balkans. This decision would shape Europe’s future.

When fighting broke out in the Serbian–Ottoman War and the Herzegovina Uprising, Russia felt pressure to help the Serbs, whom they saw as their allies. Russia later agreed that Austria-Hungary could stay in control of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was decided in the Budapest Convention of 1877. This agreement affected the future of the region.

Treaty of San Stefano

Main article: Treaty of San Stefano

Bulgaria after the Conference of Constantinople, 1876

After a rebellion in Bulgaria in 1876 and a war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire in 1877–1878, Russia had freed almost all of the Ottoman lands in Europe. The Ottomans recognized Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia as independent countries, and each of these countries gained more land. Russia also set up a large new country called the Principality of Bulgaria, which was mostly independent but still linked to the Ottoman ruler. This made Russia very powerful in the Balkans, which worried other European countries.

Because of these changes, Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, and Germany wanted to meet to discuss how to share the lands in the Balkans more fairly. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck called this meeting, known as the Congress of Berlin. The meeting was held in Berlin from June 13 to July 13, 1878. Countries that attended included Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire. The Congress changed many parts of an earlier agreement called the Treaty of San Stefano, reshaping the eastern part of Europe.

Other powers' fear of Russian influence

The leaders at the Congress of Berlin were worried about the growth of a movement called pan-Slavism, which made countries like Berlin and Vienna nervous. They feared that Slavic people might rise up against their rulers. Britain and France were also concerned because they wanted to keep control over areas like Egypt and Palestine, and they didn't want Russia to become too powerful.

Ethnic composition map of the Balkans by the German-English cartographer Ernst Georg Ravenstein of 1870

Russia had created an independent area called Bulgaria under the Treaty of San Stefano, which worried Britain. This new area included parts of Macedonia and gave Russia access to important waterways like the Dardanelles Straits. Britain saw this as a threat to their power in the Mediterranean Sea. To protect their interests, Britain made a secret agreement with the Ottoman Empire to control the island of Cyprus before the Congress even started. This agreement shaped Britain's position during the talks.

Bismarck as host

Bismarck manipulates the emperors of Austria, Germany & Russia like a ventriloquist's puppets.

The Congress of Berlin is often seen as a key moment in the struggle between Alexander Gorchakov of Russia and Otto von Bismarck of Germany. Both leaders convinced other European countries that creating an independent Bulgaria would help reduce dangers from the weakening Ottoman Empire. Erich Eyck noted that Bismarck agreed with Russia that Turkish control over Christian areas like Bulgaria caused unrest and should end. He pointed to the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875 as evidence of rising tensions in the area.

Bismarck’s main aim at the Congress of Berlin was to keep Germany’s position strong without causing trouble. He did not want to choose between Russia and Austria as allies, which could break the League of the Three Emperors. Instead, he worked to show that dividing the Balkans would bring more peace. Bismarck was known for seeking peace unless it directly affected Germany. Because Germany was doing well, he did not want any fights among big European powers that might change this balance. He claimed Germany was neutral at the Congress, allowing him to lead the talks carefully.

Most European leaders expected grand speeches and drama, like at the Congress of Vienna, but they were surprised. Bismarck, unhappy about holding the meeting in hot summer weather, had little patience and stopped any showy behavior. Representatives from smaller Balkan areas were hardly allowed to join the main discussions, which were mostly among leaders of the large powers.

According to Henry Kissinger, the Congress marked a change in Bismarck’s Realpolitik. As Germany grew too strong to stay alone, he had previously relied on Russia’s friendship. But now, he started building ties with many other countries instead.

Legacy

At the Congress of Berlin, several changes were made to the lands in the Balkans. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro became independent countries. Russia took back a region called Southern Bessarabia, which it had lost earlier. The large Bulgarian state that Russia had created was split into two parts: the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. Both were allowed to govern themselves but were still under the control of the Ottoman Empire.

Russia felt that the Congress did not give it the benefits it expected. Many in Russia were unhappy because other European powers favored a stronger Austria-Hungary over Russia. This made Russia lose its influence in the area. Some other countries, like Italy and Greece, were also not satisfied with the outcomes. The decisions made at the Congress led to more problems in the future, including the Balkan Wars and later the First World War. The area remained tense and was a source of conflict for many years to come.

Internal opposition to Andrássy's objectives

Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy and the occupation and administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina gained the right to place troops in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which stayed under Ottoman control. This kept Serbia and Montenegro separate and allowed Austro-Hungarian forces a path toward Salonika, potentially bringing much of the western Balkans under their influence.

Some leaders in Hungary disagreed strongly. On 28 September 1878, the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, said he would quit if the army, supported by the Archduke Albert, moved toward Salonika. Later, in a meeting of the Hungarian Parliament on 5 November 1878, some members tried to remove Andrássy from his position, claiming he broke rules with his actions during the crisis and the takeover of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The attempt failed, with the vote ending 179 to 95. Many opponents had serious complaints against Andrássy’s decisions.