Dissolution of the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union was a large country made up of many different republics, or states, that worked together. By the late 1980s, problems began to grow. The country's economy was struggling, and many people in the different republics wanted more freedom and independence. Leaders tried to make changes to fix these problems, but the situation became more difficult.

In 1991, a few important leaders from the largest republics decided that the Soviet Union should end. They signed an agreement to create a new group called the Commonwealth of Independent States, or CIS, to help the countries work together peacefully after the Soviet Union was gone.

On December 25, 1991, the leader of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, stepped down. The next day, the Soviet Union officially ended, and each of its republics became independent countries. This ending of the Soviet Union marked the conclusion of big changes across Europe in 1989 and the end of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States. Many of the new countries kept close ties with Russia and joined groups like the CIS to support each other.

Background

1985: Gorbachev elected

See also: Glasnost and Perestroika

Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union on 11 March 1985. He was only 54, making him the youngest leader at the time. His main goal was to improve the struggling Soviet economy, which meant changing how the government worked. He started by changing who was in charge, bringing in new people to help push for reforms. His ideas allowed people to speak more freely, which led to growing movements for independence in many parts of the Soviet Union. This also put pressure on Gorbachev to make bigger changes.

In 1985, Gorbachev brought Boris Yeltsin into important positions, believing he could help with reforms. However, Yeltsin later disagreed with Gorbachev's slow progress and became popular for standing up to the government.

1986: Sakharov returns

Gorbachev kept pushing for change. In December 1986, he allowed Andrei Sakharov, a famous scientist who had been forced to leave Moscow for speaking out, to return home.

1987: One-party democracy

In early 1987, Gorbachev suggested letting people choose between different candidates in elections for the Communist Party. But the party did not fully support this idea. He also encouraged people to talk openly about almost any topic. In February 1987, many political prisoners were released for the first time in years.

In October 1987, Boris Yeltsin criticized Gorbachev for moving too slowly with reforms. This made Yeltsin more popular with people who wanted change. Gorbachev removed Yeltsin from his position shortly after.

Protest activity (1986-1987)

During these years, many people in different parts of the Soviet Union began to protest for their rights.

In the Baltic states, groups formed to oppose Soviet rule. In December 1986, young people in Riga marched for Latvia's freedom, and police tried to stop them.

In December 1986, students in Alma-Ata protested after a leader from their area was replaced by someone from elsewhere, leading to big clashes.

In May 1987, a nationalist group marched in Moscow, and the government did not stop them. In June 1987, people gathered again in Riga to remember those taken away by the government in 1941.

In July 1987, Crimean Tatars demonstrated in Moscow for the right to return to their homeland.

In August 1987, people in the Baltic states held protests to remember those affected by old agreements between the Soviet Union and Germany.

In October 1987, people in Armenia protested for their rights, calling for changes in nearby areas to join Armenia. The police tried to stop these protests.

Timeline

1988

Moscow loses control

In 1988, the leader of the Soviet Union started to lose control of two regions. The Baltic republics were moving toward independence, and the Caucasus became violent and divided.

On July 1, 1988, the leader proposed creating a new legislative body called the Congress of People's Deputies. This was part of efforts to separate the government from the party. Changes to the constitution were made, and elections were set for March 26, 1989.

On November 29, 1988, the Soviet Union stopped blocking foreign radio stations, allowing people to hear news from outside the country for the first time in many years.

Baltic republics

In 1986 and 1987, Latvia pushed for reform. In 1988, Estonia took the lead. The Popular Front of Estonia was founded in April 1988. On June 16, 1988, the leader of Estonia was replaced with someone more open to change. In late June, the Estonian flag was allowed to fly again, and Estonian became the official language.

On October 2, the Popular Front launched its political plans. On November 16, 1988, Estonia declared that its laws were more important than Soviet laws. Estonia also claimed control over its natural resources.

The Popular Front of Latvia was founded in June 1988. On October 4, the leader of Latvia was replaced. In October, the Latvian flag was allowed to fly, and Latvian became the official language.

The Popular Front of Lithuania, called Sąjūdis, was founded in May 1988. On October 19, the leader of Lithuania was replaced. In October, the Lithuanian flag was allowed to fly, and Lithuanian became the official language. The national anthem was also brought back.

Rebellion in the Caucasus

On February 20, 1988, the region of Nagorno-Karabakh voted to leave Azerbaijan and join Armenia. This caused protests and violence. In Sumgait, Azerbaijan, riots broke out, and many people were hurt or killed. The army was sent in to control the situation.

The leader of Azerbaijan was replaced in May 1988. In September, a new group called the Popular Front of Azerbaijan was formed. In November, large protests began in Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan.

In Armenia, protests started in February and grew larger each day. The Karabakh Committee was formed to lead the movement. The leader of Armenia was replaced in May 1988. In June, Armenia declared that it wanted to include Nagorno-Karabakh. In July, troops were sent to Armenia, and one person was killed. In autumn, many Azerbaijanis left Armenia.

On December 7, 1988, a big earthquake struck, causing many deaths. The leader of Armenia was arrested in December after asking for Nagorno-Karabakh to join Armenia.

In Tbilisi, Georgia, protests for independence began in November 1988.

Western republics

In February 1988, a movement began in Moldova. On April 26, 1988, a march was held in Kiev to mark the Chernobyl disaster. In June, rallies were held in Lviv, Ukraine. In July, the Democratic Front to Promote Perestroika was launched. In August, a demonstration was stopped by police.

In November, a meeting was held in Kiev about environmental issues. In December, a rally for human rights took place.

The Belarusian Popular Front was started in 1988. The discovery of mass graves near Minsk gave more support to the movement for independence.

1989

Moscow: limited democratization

In spring 1989, people in the Soviet Union voted for the new Congress of People's Deputies. This was the first time since 1917 that people could choose their leaders in elections. The elections led to changes in Poland and other countries.

CNN started broadcasting in Moscow in 1989, allowing people to see news from around the world.

The nominations for the Congress of People's Deputies lasted until January 24, 1989. The final list of candidates was published on March 7. Elections were held on March 26, and run-offs took place in April and May.

In the first session of the Congress, reforms were discussed. On May 29, one leader secured a seat on the Supreme Soviet. In the summer, the first opposition group was formed.

On May 30, 1989, the leader proposed postponing local elections until early 1990.

On October 25, 1989, the Supreme Soviet voted to remove special seats for the Communist Party and other groups in elections. This was a response to criticism that such seats were unfair.

Baltic Chain of Freedom

The Baltic Way was a peaceful demonstration on August 23, 1989. About 2 million people formed a human chain across Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. This marked the 50th anniversary of a pact that had led to the occupation of the Baltic states.

In December 1989, the Congress of People's Deputies condemned the secret agreements that had led to the annexation of the Baltic republics.

In March 1989, 36 of the 42 deputies from Lithuania were from the independent movement Sąjūdis. On December 7, 1989, the Communist Party of Lithuania split from the Soviet Communist Party.

Caucasus

In July 1989, the Popular Front of Azerbaijan held its first meeting. In August, protests demanded the release of political prisoners. In autumn, weapons were distributed in Nagorno-Karabakh. A rail blockade of Armenia caused shortages.

On May 31, 1989, the members of the Karabakh Committee were released from prison. On April 7, 1989, troops were sent to Tbilisi after protests. On April 9, troops attacked protesters, and many were hurt or killed.

On July 16, 1989, violence broke out in Abkhazia. On November 17, Georgia declared that its joining the Soviet Union was illegal.

Western republics

In March 1989, elections were held for the Congress of People's Deputies. In Moldova, the Popular Front was founded in May. In August, a large rally led to the adoption of a language law making Romanian the official language.

In Ukraine, celebrations of Ukrainian Independence Day took place in January 1989. In February, rallies protested election laws. On March 26, elections were held for the Congress of People's Deputies.

In April, pre-election meetings were held in Lviv. On May 3, a rally took place at a site of mass graves. In August, protests occurred against a draft election law. On October 28, Ukrainian was declared the official language.

In Belarus, a monument was agreed to be built for victims of Stalin-era executions.

Miners' strikes

In July 1989, coal miners went on strike in the Kuznetsk Basin, Donbas, and Vorkuta. They protested against high prices, unsafe conditions, and corruption. The government agreed to meet some of their demands, but the strikes caused political pressure.

Central Asian republics

In June 1989, riots broke out in the Fergana Valley between Uzbeks and Meskhetian minorities. About 100 people were killed. In Kazakhstan, riots occurred in June over land disputes. The leader of Kazakhstan was replaced.

1990

Moscow loses five republics

In February 1990, the party gave up its monopoly on power. In 1990, elections were held in all republics, and reformers and ethnic nationalists won in five republics: Lithuania, Moldova, Estonia, Latvia, and Georgia.

The republics began to declare sovereignty and challenge Soviet laws. This caused economic problems.

Rivalry between Soviet Union and Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

In March 1990, Boris Yeltsin was elected President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. In May, he became chair of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR. A power struggle began between the RSFSR and the Soviet Union. In June, the RSFSR declared sovereignty. In July, Yeltsin left the Communist Party.

Baltic republics

In January 1990, a large rally took place in Lithuania. On March 11, Lithuania declared independence from the Soviet Union. Moscow responded with an economic blockade.

On March 25, the Estonian Communist Party voted to split from the Soviet Communist Party. On March 30, Estonia declared the Soviet occupation illegal. On April 3, Edgar Savisaar was elected Prime Minister of Estonia.

Latvia declared independence on May 4, 1990. On May 7, Ivars Godmanis was elected Prime Minister of Latvia.

On May 8, Estonia officially reinstated its 1938 Constitution.

Caucasus

In January 1990, protests occurred in Nakhchivan. On January 9, fighting broke out in Nagorno-Karabakh. On January 19, Soviet troops entered Baku, leading to many deaths. Civil liberties were affected.

On August 23, Armenia declared independence.

Western republics

In January 1990, a human chain was formed in Ukraine. On January 23, the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church held its first synod since 1946. On February 9, Rukh was officially registered.

In March, Democratic Bloc candidates won elections in western Ukraine. On April 6, Lviv City Council voted to return St. George Cathedral to the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church. On April 29–30, the Ukrainian Helsinki Union disbanded to form the Ukrainian Republican Party.

On May 15, the new parliament convened. On June 4, Volodymyr Ivashko was elected parliament chair. On June 5–6, Patriarch Mstyslav was elected patriarch of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church.

On June 22, Ivashko withdrew his candidacy for leader of the Communist Party of Ukraine. Stanislav Hurenko was elected first secretary. On July 11, Ivashko resigned as parliament chairman. On July 16, Ukraine declared state sovereignty. On July 23, Leonid Kravchuk was elected parliament chairman. On July 30, a resolution on military service was adopted. On August 1, the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant was ordered to close. On August 3, a law on economic sovereignty was adopted. On August 19, the first Ukrainian Catholic liturgy in 44 years was held. On September 5–7, a symposium on the Great Famine was held. On September 8, a youth rally took place. On September 28–30, the Green Party of Ukraine was founded. On September 30, a protest march occurred in Kiev.

On October 1, parliament reconvened amid protests. On October 17, Prime Minister Vitaliy Masol resigned. On October 20, Patriarch Mstyslav arrived in Kiev. On October 23, Article 6 of the Ukrainian Constitution was deleted. On October 25–28, Rukh held its second congress. On November 1, leaders of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic and Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Churches met. On November 18, Mstyslav was enthroned as Patriarch. On November 19, Canada and the United States announced their consuls to Kiev. On November 19, the chairmen of the Ukrainian and Russian parliaments signed a pact. In December, new parties were founded.

On July 27, the Byelorussian SSR declared state sovereignty.

Central Asian republics

In February 1990, riots occurred in Dushanbe, Tajikistan. A state of emergency was declared. In June, ethnic clashes happened in Osh, Kyrgyzstan, causing many casualties.

In Turkmenistan, the People's Democratic Movement supported independence. Small rallies for independence were held in Ashghabad and Krasnovodsk. The Communist Party of Turkmenistan remained strong.

1991

Moscow's crisis

In January 1991, the prime minister resigned, and Valentin Pavlov became the new Prime Minister. On March 17, 1991, a referendum showed that 77.85% of voters wanted to keep a reformed Soviet Union. The Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, Moldova, and Checheno-Ingushetia boycotted the referendum.

Russia's President Boris Yeltsin

On June 12, 1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic with 57% of the vote.

The Caucasus: Georgia takes the lead

In March 1991, a referendum showed that 99.5% of Georgians voted for independence. On April 9, 1991, Georgia declared independence from the Soviet Union.

Baltic republics

On January 13, 1991, Soviet troops attacked the Vilnius TV Tower in Lithuania, killing 14 people. On July 31, Russian OMON attacked a Lithuanian border post, killing seven servicemen.

On February 9, Lithuania held a referendum with 93.2% voting for independence. On February 12, Iceland recognized Lithuania's independence. On March 3, a referendum in Estonia showed 77.8% supported independence. On March 11, Denmark recognized Estonia's independence.

August coup attempt

On August 19, 1991, a coup attempt was made to stop the signing of a new union treaty. The leaders put Gorbachev under house arrest and tried to arrest Yeltsin. Thousands of people defended the White House in Moscow. The coup failed after three days.

August-December transition period

On August 24, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as general secretary of the Communist Party. On the same day, Ukraine declared independence. On August 29, the Soviet Union suspended all Communist Party activity. Gorbachev formed a State Council on September 5.

The Soviet Union collapsed quickly in late 1991. By September, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow. Yeltsin took over much of the Soviet government.

The Soviet Union recognized the Baltic republics on September 6. Georgia cut ties on September 7.

On September 17, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania joined the United Nations.

On November 6, Yeltsin banned all Communist Party activities on Russian territory.

By November 7, most newspapers referred to the 'former Soviet Union'.

The collapse continued on December 1, when Ukraine held a referendum affirming independence. On December 8, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus signed the Belavezha Accords, declaring the Soviet Union ceased to exist and forming the Commonwealth of Independent States.

On December 12, the Russian SFSR ratified the Belavezha Accords and denounced the 1922 Union Treaty.

On December 16, the Kazakh SSR became the last republic to secede.

On December 17, the three Baltic Republics and nine other republics signed the European Energy Charter.

On December 18, the upper chamber of the Soviet Union accepted the Agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Gorbachev met with Yeltsin and accepted the dissolution. On December 21, representatives of 11 republics signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, confirming the dissolution and establishing the CIS.

Gorbachev resigned on December 25, 1991. The Soviet flag was lowered, and the Russian flag was raised. On December 26, the Soviet of Nationalities ratified the Belavezha Accords, voting the Soviet Union out of existence.

Consequences

Economic decline and excess mortality

After the end of a big fight between countries, many places that used to be part of a big group of nations faced big changes. Some of these places grew richer, but many others fell far behind. By 2011, many of these countries were still struggling to catch up to where they used to be.

The amount of things these countries could make and sell dropped a lot, by about half on average. For example, some places saw their ability to make and sell drop by as much as 78%. This made life harder for many people, with fewer jobs and less money to spend.

Post-Soviet conflicts

When a big group of countries broke apart, it caused many fights and arguments. Different groups of people inside these countries had different ideas about how things should be run, leading to many battles and disagreements. These fights were about land, leaders, and how power should be shared.

China

After a long time of not getting along, China and the group of countries started to work together again in 1989. They made agreements to be friends and help each other, and they joined a group of countries working together for peace and trade.

Cuba

When the big group of countries broke apart, Cuba lost important help, like oil and food, that it used to get from them. This made life very hard for people in Cuba, with less food, fuel, and many things that were needed every day.

North Korea

When the big group of countries broke apart, North Korea lost important help, like cheap oil and other things it needed. This made it very hard for North Korea to keep its farms and factories running, leading to big problems for the country.

Israel

Many people from the group of countries moved to Israel between 1989 and 2006. Most of these people were Jewish, and Israel allowed them to move there because of laws that say Jewish people can live in Israel.

Afghanistan

When the big group of countries stopped fighting in Afghanistan, it led to a civil war there. The leader who was helped by the big group lost support, and different groups started fighting for control. This led to more battles and changes in who was leading the country.

Sports and "Unified Team"

When the big group of countries broke apart, it changed sports a lot. Before, they all competed together, but after, each country had its own team. In some big sports events, some of the countries still competed together as one team for a little while.

Telecommunications

The big group of countries used a special number for phone calls, but after they broke apart, many places got their own numbers. However, some still use the old number.

Glasnost and "Memorial"

When the big group of countries started to open up more, people learned about many hidden or forgotten parts of their history. This included stories about past fights, leaders who did bad things, and disasters that happened. A group called Memorial was started to remember and honor people who suffered under unfair rules and to support human rights.

Chronology of declarations

See also: Parade of sovereignties

Union republics are shown in bold, and autonomous units that became states with limited recognition are shown in italics. Entities peacefully reincorporated into a post-Soviet republic are not listed.

  Incorporated into another state

  Not recognized/Semi-recognized states

Legacy

Main article: Post-Soviet states

Further information: Nostalgia for the Soviet Union and Succession, continuity and legacy of the Soviet Union

Many people in some former Soviet countries felt sad when the Soviet Union ended. In Russia, over half of the people have often said they wished the Soviet Union was still around. Leaders and experts have talked about how the end of the Soviet Union caused big changes, including harder times for many people.

When the Soviet Union broke apart, many countries faced serious economic problems. The way things were run changed a lot, and many people’s lives became more difficult. Some experts think these changes helped shape the world’s economy in new ways.

United Nations membership

In a letter dated 24 December 1991, Boris Yeltsin, the Russian president, informed the United Nations Secretary-General that the membership of the Soviet Union in the Security Council and all other UN organs would be continued by the Russian Federation with the support of the 11 member countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

However, the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic had already joined the UN as original members on 24 October 1945, together with the Soviet Union. After declaring independence, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic changed its name to Ukraine on 24 August 1991, and on 19 September, the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic informed the UN that it had changed its name to the Republic of Belarus.

All of the twelve other independent states that were established from the former Soviet republics were admitted to the UN:

• 17 September 1991: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania
• 2 March 1992: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan
• 31 July 1992: Georgia

Historiographic explanations

The end of the Soviet Union surprised many people. Before 1991, few thought it would collapse.

Historians explain the collapse in two main ways. Some believe it was caused by choices made by leaders like Mikhail Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin. They argue that Gorbachev's reforms, such as opening up government discussion and changing the economy, led to the Union's end.

Others think the Soviet Union was doomed by deep problems. They point to issues like how different groups within the country were treated and changes in how the country was run. These problems made the country weaker over time.