Russia

Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country in Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world, stretching across eleven time zones and sharing land borders with fourteen countries. With a population of over 140 million, it is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous in the world.

Human settlement in Russia dates back to ancient times. The East Slavs formed the Kievan Rus' in the 9th century, which later became the Tsardom of Russia and then the Russian Empire. In 1917, the Russian Revolution led to the creation of the Soviet Union. After World War II, the Soviet Union became a superpower during the Cold War.

In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved, and the independent Russian Federation was established. Today, Russia is considered a great power, with a strong military and vast natural resources like oil and natural gas. It remains a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and has significant influence in global affairs.

Etymology

Main article: Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia

The name "Russia" comes from old words used to describe people and places long ago. In the 14th century, people in England started calling the country "Russia," borrowing the word from Latin. In Russian, there are different words to talk about the country and its people. Words like russkiy mean ethnic Russians, while rossiiskiy refers to anyone who is a citizen of Russia, no matter their background.

Long ago, the early Russian state was called Rus', named after a group of people from Sweden. Over time, the name changed to Rossiya, which is used today. This name came from an old Greek word. Even now, poets sometimes use the word Rus' to talk about the spirit or history of Russia.

History

Main article: History of Russia

Early history

Further information: Ancient Greek colonies, Early Slavs, Huns, Turkic expansion, and Prehistory of Siberia

See also: Proto-Indo-Europeans and Proto-Uralic homeland

The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the Oldowan period in the early Lower Paleolithic. About 2 million years ago, representatives of Homo erectus migrated to the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia. Flint tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the North Caucasus. Radiocarbon dated specimens from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains estimate the oldest Denisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago. Fossils of Denny, an archaic human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave. Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in Mezmaiskaya cave.

The first trace of an early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in Western Siberia. The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of anatomically modern humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at Kostyonki–Borshchyovo, and at Sungir, dating back to 34,600 years ago—both in western Russia. Humans reached Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya. Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia genetically similar to Mal'ta–Buret' culture and Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to Ancient Native Americans and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.

The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and Ukraine as the urheimat of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread Yamnaya ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia. Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic. Remnants of these steppe civilisations were discovered in places such as Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, and Pazyryk, which bear the earliest known traces of horses in warfare. The genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.

In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies, was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars. The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century. After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.

The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe c. 1500 years ago. The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern Moscow and Saint-Petersburg) in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov. Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.

Kievan Rus'

Main articles: Rus' Khaganate; [Kievan Rus']/](/w/388); and List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine

The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas. According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian from the Rus' people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars. Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate, and launched several military expeditions to Bulgaria, Byzantium and Persia.

In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda. The age of feudalism and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Novgorod Republic in the north, and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west. By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities. Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base, leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.

Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240, as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle on the Ice in 1242.

Kievan Rus' finally fell to the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in the sacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population. The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries. Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols. Galicia-Volhynia would later be absorbed by Lithuania and Poland, while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.

Grand Principality of Moscow

Main article: Grand Principality of Moscow

The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the Grand Principality of Moscow, initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal. While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century, gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands". When the seat of the Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased. Moscow's last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.

Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod.

Ivan III ("the Great") threw off the control of the Golden Horde and gained sovereignty over the ethnically Russian lands; he later adopted the title of sovereign of all Russia. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms. Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent Russian states in the early 16th century.

Tsardom of Russia

Main article: Tsardom of Russia

See also: Moscow, third Rome

In development of the Third Rome ideas, the grand prince Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned as the first tsar of all Russia in 1547. The tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government. During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga, and the Khanat of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the Ural Mountains. However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), the Kingdom of Sweden, and Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade. In 1571, the Crimean Tatars, supported by the Ottomans, burned down Moscow, destroying everything except the Kremlin. The following year, the Crimeans attempted another raid on Moscow, but this time they were defeated in the crucial Battle of Molodi.

The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous famine of 1601–1603, led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow. In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky. The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the Cossacks. In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, Alexis, whose acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper, placing Left-bank Ukraine and Kyiv under Russian rule. In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.

Imperial Russia

Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms were made, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia. He was succeeded by Catherine I (1725–1727), followed by Peter II (1727–1730), and Anna. The reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran East Prussia, reaching Berlin. However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.

Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over the Russian Age of Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and annexed most of its territories into Russia, making it the most populous country in Europe. In the south, after the successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the Crimean Khanate, and annexing Crimea. As a result of victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars, by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also conquered the Caucasus. Catherine's successor, her son Paul, was unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues. Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with Alexander I's (1801–1825) wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809, and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812. In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to reach and colonise Alaska. In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation was made. In 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.

Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts

During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris. Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.

The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825. At the end of the conservative reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.

Great liberal reforms and capitalism

Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861. These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War. During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain colluded over Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the Great Game.

The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists. The reign of his son Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.

Constitutional monarchy and World War

Under last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the humiliating failure of the Russo-Japanese War. The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma.

Revolution and civil war

In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia, and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies. In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army. However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumours of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts. In early 1917, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Russian Civil War. The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government, and proclaimed the Russian Republic. On 19 January [O.S. 6 January], 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.

An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called soviets. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first socialist state. The Russian Civil War broke out between the anti-communist White movement and the Bolsheviks with its Red Army. In the aftermath of signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I, Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.

The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-communist forces. In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror. By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians. Millions became White émigrés, and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.

Soviet Union

Main article: History of the Soviet Union

Command economy and Soviet society

On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by joining the Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian, Transcaucasian, and Ukrainian republics. Eventually, internal border changes and annexations during World War II resulted in a union of 15 republics, the largest and most populous being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.

Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika was designated to take charge. Eventually Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s. Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of Socialism in One Country became the official line. The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge.

Stalinism and modernisation

Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivisation of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to penal labour camps, including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule, and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought, led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which killed 5.7 to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR. The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.

World War II and United Nations

Main article: Soviet Union in World War II

The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its invasion of Poland, in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany. The Soviet Union later invaded Finland, and occupied and annexed the Baltic states, as well as parts of Romania. On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front, the largest theatre of World War II.

Eventually, some 5 million Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis; the latter deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" sought to fulfil Generalplan Ost. Although the Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow. Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943, and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943. Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered. Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and captured Berlin in May 1945. In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Manchuria and ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.

The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the Four Policemen, which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council. During the war, Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million, accounting for about half of all World War II casualties. The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–1947. However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a superpower.

Superpower and Cold War

After World War II, according to the Potsdam Conference, the Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany and the eastern regions of Austria. Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states. After becoming the world's second nuclear power, the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance, and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivalling United States and NATO.

Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development

After Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of collective leadership, the new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization, releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labour camps. The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev Thaw. At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thus starting the Space Age. Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the Vostok 1 crewed spacecraft on 12 April 1961.

Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation

Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective leadership ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation. The 1965 Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the Soviet economy. In 1979, after a communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War. In May 1988, the Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan, due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.

Perestroika, democratisation and Russian sovereignty

From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government. This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country. Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.

By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union. On 17 March, a referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a renewed federation. In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected President in Russian history when he was elected President of the Russian SFSR. In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.

Independent Russian Federation

Main article: History of Russia (1991–present)

Transition to a market economy and political crises

The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy". The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of Russian oligarchs. Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight. The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed, and millions plunged into poverty, while extreme corruption, as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.

In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.

Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilisation

In December, a referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers. The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections. From the time Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces. Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts. In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble. High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a further GDP decline.

Movement towards a modernised economy, political centralisation and democratic backsliding

Further information: Putinism

On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin. Putin then won the 2000 presidential election, and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the Second Chechen War.

Putin won a second presidential term in 2004. High oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the Russian economy and living standards improve significantly. Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an authoritarian state. In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while Dmitry Medvedev was elected President for one term, to hold onto power despite legal term limits; this period has been described as a "tandemocracy".

Following a diplomatic standoff with neighboring Georgia in 2008—Russian forces invaded the country from 1–16 August 2008 and occupied territories that it has since considered as independent states—Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The conflict marked the first war in Europe in the 21st century. The 2008 constitutional amendments saw the terms of the president extend to six years and the lower house (State Duma) to five years. Putin then went on to win the 2012 presidential election, which fuelled the "Snow Revolution" protests.

Russo-Ukrainian war and 2022 invasion

Main article: Russo-Ukrainian war

In 2014, following a pro-Western revolution in Ukraine, Russia invaded and annexed Crimea. It also supported an insurgency in the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine, and aided pro-Russian separatists waging a war against the Ukrainian government. The frozen conflict escalated into the Russian invasion of the remainder Ukraine on 24 February 2022, initiating the largest conventional war in Europe since World War II. The invasion met with international condemnation, and expanded sanctions against Russia. Russia was expelled from the Council of Europe in March 2022, and subsequently suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council the following month.

Russia initially made rapid advances in the northern and eastern fronts, yet failed to capture Kyiv and overthrow the Ukrainian government, leading to a subsequent withdrawal from the north. In September 2022, Russia proclaimed the annexation of four partially-occupied Ukrainian regions, which was internationally denounced as illegal. Following the annexations, the conflict has settled into a war of attrition in the southern and eastern fronts, with Russian forces making slow, limited advances and suffering heavy casualties. Russian forces have been accused of committing war crimes during the invasion, and occupied about a fifth of Ukraine's territory at the end of 2025.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Russia

Russia is the largest country in the world, stretching across both Europe and Asia. It has a very long coastline and many mountains, including the Caucasus Mountains where Mount Elbrus, the highest peak in Europe, is located. Russia also has many islands and a lot of lakes, with Lake Baikal being the deepest lake in the world.

Main article: Climate of Russia

Russia has many different climates due to its size. Most of the country has cold winters and warm summers, but the far north is very cold all year. Some areas near the Black Sea have milder winters. Climate change is affecting Russia, causing more wildfires and melting permafrost.

Main article: Wildlife of Russia

See also: List of ecoregions in Russia

Russia has many different types of environments, from arctic tundra to forests and steppes. It is home to many species of plants and animals, including over 320 types of mammals and many birds. Russia has many protected areas where these natural habitats are preserved.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Russia

Russia is a symmetric federal republic with a semi-presidential system. The president is the head of state, and the prime minister is the head of government. The government is structured as a multi-party representative democracy, with three main branches: legislative, executive, and judiciary.

The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia handles laws, war declarations, and treaties. The president leads the Armed Forces and appoints government officials. Courts interpret laws and can overturn those they find unconstitutional.

Russia’s political history includes periods of autocracy, from absolute monarchy to Soviet communism, and transitions to democracy. In recent years, it has moved toward a more centralized, authoritarian style of governance.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Russia

Further information: Economic history of the Russian Federation and Taxation in Russia

Russia has a high-income, industrialised economy. It is the ninth-largest by nominal GDP and the fourth-largest by GDP when considering purchasing power parity (PPP). The service sector makes up about 57% of the economy, with industry accounting for 30% and agriculture for 3%. Russia has a large labor force of about 73 million people.

Russia's economy faces challenges such as high income inequality, regional economic differences, and the effects of international sanctions following geopolitical events. Despite these challenges, the country has shown economic resilience, supported by strong military spending, household consumption, and government investment.

Transport and energy

Main articles: Transport in Russia and Energy in Russia

Russia has an extensive transportation network, including the world's third-longest railway system and the fifth-largest road network. The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway line in the world. Russia is rich in natural resources, especially natural gas and oil, making it a major energy producer and exporter. The country is also a leader in nuclear energy technology and has significant potential in renewable energy, though this area remains underdeveloped.

Agriculture and fishery

Main articles: Agriculture in Russia and Fishing industry in Russia

Agriculture and fishing contribute about 3.3% to Russia's GDP. The country has vast agricultural land and is a leading exporter of wheat, barley, and buckwheat. Russia also has a large fishing industry, with a coastline along multiple oceans, producing significant amounts of fish and caviar.

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Russia

See also: Timeline of Russian innovation, List of Russian scientists, and List of Russian inventors

Russia invests about 1% of its GDP in research and development and ranks high in scientific publications. Notable Russian scientists and inventors include Dmitry Mendeleev, who created the Periodic Table, and Yuri Gagarin, the first human to travel into space. Russia continues to advance in fields such as mathematics, physics, and space exploration.

Space exploration

Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. Russia has a proud history in space exploration, beginning with the launch of Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, and Yuri Gagarin, the first human in space. Many other milestones followed, including the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova, and the first spacewalk by Alexei Leonov. Russia continues to contribute to space exploration with active satellites and ongoing lunar missions.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Russia

Russia attracts tourists with its diverse landscapes and rich cultural heritage. Popular destinations include the Golden Ring cities, cruises on the Volga River, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Trans-Siberian Railway. Key landmarks such as Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, and Saint Basil's Cathedral draw visitors from around the world. Moscow and Saint Petersburg are major cultural hubs, offering world-class museums, theaters, and historic architecture.

Demographics

Russia has a population of about 146 million people, making it the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous in the world. Most people live in the western part of the country, where it is less sparsely populated. The country is highly urbanized, with two-thirds of people living in cities.

Russia is home to many different ethnic groups, with over 193 groups nationwide. About 81% of the population are ethnic Russians, and the rest are from various minority groups. The country also has a large number of immigrants, many from other countries that were formerly part of the Soviet Union.

Language

Russian is the official language of Russia and is spoken by most people. It is the most widely spoken native language in Europe and one of the official languages of the United Nations. Russia also has many minority languages, though some of these are becoming less common over time.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Russia

Russia is a secular country, but the most common religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, mainly followed by the Russian Orthodox Church. Islam is the second-most common religion, particularly in certain regions. Other religions practiced in Russia include Judaism, Buddhism, and various traditional beliefs.

Education

Main article: Education in Russia

Russia has a strong education system, with nearly everyone able to read and write. Children attend school for 11 years, starting at age 7. Many continue their education beyond this, and Russia has some of the oldest and most famous universities in the world.

Health

Main article: Health in Russia

Further information: Healthcare in Russia

Russia provides free healthcare to all its citizens. The country has made improvements in life expectancy over the years, though challenges remain, such as higher rates of certain health issues among men. The healthcare system has changed since the 1990s, with more focus on local management and private healthcare options.

Culture

Russian culture is rich and diverse, shaped by centuries of history and interaction with many different peoples and ideas. Russia has made important contributions to classical music, ballet, theatre, mathematics, sport, painting, and cinema. Famous Russian writers and philosophers have greatly influenced European literature and thought. Russia has also been a pioneer in science, technology, and space exploration.

Russia is home to many UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and its large diaspora has helped spread Russian culture around the world. The double-headed eagle is a national symbol, and the Russian Bear and Mother Russia are popular national personifications. Matryoshka dolls are also well-known cultural icons.

Holidays

Main article: Public holidays in Russia

Russia observes several important holidays. The year begins with New Year's Day on January 1, followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on January 7. Defender of the Fatherland Day on February 23 celebrates men, while International Women's Day on March 8 is widely enjoyed. Spring and Labour Day is observed on May 1. Victory Day on May 9 honors the Soviet victory over Nazi Germany, marked by large parades in Moscow. Russia Day on June 12 commemorates Russia's sovereignty, and Unity Day on November 4 marks the end of Polish occupation of Moscow. Other popular holidays include Old New Year on January 14, Maslenitsa, Cosmonautics Day on April 12, Easter, and Trinity Sunday.

Art and architecture

Early Russian art includes icons and frescos, with Andrei Rublev being a famous icon painter. The Russian Academy of Arts, established in 1757, introduced Western techniques to Russia. Famous painters include Ivan Aivazovsky, known for marine art, and Karl Briullov, known for historical scenes. In the 19th century, realists like Ivan Kramskoy and Ilya Repin emerged, followed by symbolists and the Russian avant-garde in the early 20th century.

Russian architecture began with early woodcraft and church buildings. Byzantine architecture influenced Kievan Rus', and later, Italian architects brought Renaissance styles to Moscow. Unique features like tent-like churches and onion domes developed in the 16th century. Western European styles, including Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Art Nouveau, influenced Russian architecture in later centuries.

Music

Main article: Music of Russia

Russian music began with church music and folk songs. In the 19th century, composers like Mikhail Glinka and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky emerged, followed by Sergei Rachmaninoff and Igor Stravinsky in the 20th century. During the Soviet era, popular music included balladeers like Vladimir Vysotsky and performers like Alla Pugacheva. Jazz and rock music also became popular, with bands like Aria and Kino gaining fame. Pop music has continued to thrive in Russia.

Literature and philosophy

Russian literature is one of the world's most influential, with roots in the Early Middle Ages. The Golden Age of Russian Poetry in the early 19th century produced poets like Vasily Zhukovsky and Alexander Pushkin. Novelists like Nikolai Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and Leo Tolstoy became internationally famous. In the 20th century, authors like Anton Chekhov and Mikhail Bulgakov gained recognition. Russian philosophy has also made significant contributions, with thinkers like Vladimir Solovyov, Nikolai Berdyaev, and Vladimir Lenin.

Mass media and cinema

Main articles: Media of Russia and Cinema of Russia

Russia has many news agencies, with TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, and Interfax being prominent internationally. Television is the most popular medium, with Channel One and Russia-1 being leading news channels. RT is Russia's flagship international media outlet. Russian cinema has produced world-renowned films, with directors like Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky. Soviet-era filmmakers made significant contributions, and Russian cinema has continued to grow since the late 2000s.

Cuisine

Russian cuisine is influenced by the country's diverse climate and geography. Popular foods include bread, soups like borsch and shchi, pancakes, and meat dishes like Beef Stroganoff and pelmeni. Kvass is the national non-alcoholic drink, and vodka is the national alcoholic drink. Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.

Sports

Main article: Sport in Russia

Football is the most popular sport in Russia, with the Soviet national team winning Euro 1960 and Russian clubs achieving success in European competitions. Ice hockey is also very popular, with the Soviet national team dominating the sport. Bandy is Russia's national sport. Russia has been successful in rhythmic gymnastics, synchronised swimming, figure skating, and tennis. Chess is a popular pastime, and Russia hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 2014 Winter Olympics.