Eritrea

Eritrea, officially the State of Eritrea, is a country located in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the south, Sudan to the west, and Djibouti to the southeast, with a long coastline along the Red Sea. The capital and largest city is Asmara. With an area of about 117,600 km², Eritrea includes islands such as the Dahlak Archipelago and parts of the Hanish Islands.

The history of Eritrea dates back over a million years, with important discoveries related to human evolution. The ancient Kingdom of Aksum, centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, was a major power and one of the first countries to adopt Christianity around the fourth century. Later, Italy controlled the area, forming the colony of Italian Eritrea in 1889. After World War II, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia but later annexed in 1962. This led to a long struggle for independence, which was achieved in 1993 following a referendum.

Today, Eritrea is a multi-ethnic nation with nine recognized groups, each with its own language. Tigrinya is the most widely spoken, along with Arabic and English. Most people practice either Christianity or Islam. Despite its rich history and beautiful architecture—such as the World Heritage Site of Asmara—Eritrea remains one of the world's least developed countries and has faced challenges with governance and human rights. It is a member of the African Union and the United Nations.

Etymology

The name Eritrea comes from an old Greek name for the Red Sea, called the Erythraean Sea. This name was first used in 1890 when Italian Eritrea was formed. The name stayed the same even when British and Ethiopian forces were in charge. It was kept again after the country became independent in 1993 and in the 1997 constitution.

History

Main article: History of Eritrea

Prehistory

Madam Buya, a fossil found in Eritrea by Italian scientists, is among the oldest known early human fossils. It helps us understand important steps in human evolution and may show a link between earlier humans and later modern humans. Her remains are about 1 million years old, making her one of the oldest fossils of her kind found. It is believed that the Danakil Depression in Eritrea was an important place for human evolution and might hold more clues about our ancestors.

During the last big warm period (about 130,000 to 115,000 years ago), the coast of Eritrea near the Red Sea was home to early humans. It is thought that this area was part of the route early humans used to leave Africa and spread to other parts of the world. In 1999, scientists found an old site with stone tools and other items near the Gulf of Zula, south of Massawa, along the Red Sea coast. These tools, dating back more than 125,000 years, were likely used by early humans to gather food from the sea, like clams and oysters.

Antiquity

Main articles: Gash Group, Land of Mun, and Dʿmt

Tools found in the Barka Valley, dating from 8,000 BC, show the first clear evidence that people lived in this area. Research suggests that many of Eritrea's ethnic groups were among the first to settle here.

Excavations near Agordat, in central Eritrea, uncovered the remains of an ancient civilization called the Gash Group. This included ceramics made between 2,500 and 1,500 BC.

Around 2,000 BC, parts of Eritrea were likely part of the Land of Mun, a kingdom known for trading valuable items like gold, resins, blackwood, ebony, ivory, and wild animals. Records from ancient Egypt tell of trade trips to Mun, especially one around 1,469 BC led by the queen Hatshepsut.

Excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient civilization near Asmara. This culture was one of the earliest farming and herding communities in East Africa. Items found there date from between 800 BC and 400 BC, around the same time as other early settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands.

D'mt

Main article: Dʿmt

Dʿmt was a kingdom that existed from the tenth to fifth centuries BC in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. Evidence from a large temple complex at Yeha suggests it was Dʿmt's capital. Qohaito, often called Koloe, and Matara were important Dʿmt cities in southern Eritrea.

The kingdom built systems to bring water to fields, used plows for farming, grew millet, and made tools and weapons from iron. After Dʿmt fell in the fifth century BC, the area was taken over by smaller kingdoms until the first century, when the Kingdom of Aksum united the region.

Kingdom of Aksum

Main article: Kingdom of Aksum

The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire based in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from about 100 to 940 AD, growing from smaller settlements around the fourth century BC and becoming powerful by the first century AD.

According to an old book called the Liber Axumae, Aksum's first capital was Mazaber, built by Itiyopis, the son of Cush. The capital was later moved to Axum in northern Ethiopia. The kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the fourth century.

The Aksumites built large stone towers, called stelae, for religious purposes before they became Christian. One of these, the Obelisk of Aksum, is the largest in the world, standing 90 feet tall (27 meters). Under Ezana, Aksum adopted Christianity.

Christianity was the first major world religion to be adopted in modern Eritrea. The oldest monastery, Debre Sina, dates back to the fourth century, and Debre Libanos was built in the late fifth or early sixth century.

In the seventh century AD, early Muslims from Mecca who were being treated unfairly by others in their homeland came to the kingdom for safety. They built what is believed to be the first mosque in Africa: the Mosque of the Companions in Massawa.

The kingdom was an important trading place, especially for ivory, which was sold around the ancient world. At the time, Aksum was ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis. The kings of Aksum made their own money, called Aksumite currency, to help with trade.

Early Modern Period

Main articles: Mereb Melash and Habesh Eyalet

Before colonialism, Eritrea had four different areas, each with its own people and way of life. The Christian people who spoke Tigrinya lived in the highlands, while groups of people who spoke Tigre and Beni Amer lived in the western lowlands. Arabic-speaking Muslims lived in Massawa and Dahlak, and people who moved with their animals, the Afars, lived in the Dankalia region.

After the Aksum kingdom ended, the highlands of Eritrea came under the rule of the Christian Zagwe dynasty, and later the Ethiopian Empire. The coastal areas were ruled by the Adal Sultanate. The region was first called Ma'ikele Bahri ("between the seas/rivers"), meaning the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river, and later renamed Medri Bahri ("Sea land") in the Tigrinya language. It was ruled by a local leader called the Bahr Negash, first mentioned in an old document from the 11th-century king Tatadim of the Zagwe dynasty. Ethiopian Emperor Zara Yaqob strengthened the Bahr Negash's power and placed him above other local leaders, creating a group of settlers from Shewa and making people on the coast pay taxes.

The first European to visit Eritrea was the Portuguese explorer Francisco Álvares in 1520. He described his journey through the land ruled by the Bahr Negash, mentioning three important cities, with Debarwa as the capital. He also talked about the border with the province of Tigray and the problems with moving goods across the border. His books are the first description of the local leaders in Tigray and the Bahr Negash.

The coast of Eritrea was a route to Tigray, where the Portuguese had a small settlement, and to their allies in the Ethiopian interior. Massawa was where soldiers led by Cristóvão da Gama landed in 1541 to help fight against the Adal Sultanate in the battle of Wayna Daga in 1543.

By 1557, the Ottomans took control of most of northeastern Eritrea for about two decades, from Massawa to Suakin in Sudan. This area became an Ottoman region called the Habesh Eyalet, with its capital at Massawa. When Massawa became less important for trade, the capital was moved across the Red Sea to Jeddah. The Ottomans tried to take the highlands of Eritrea in 1559 but left after facing resistance. They tried again in 1578 with help from a leader named Bahri Negash Yisehaq, but Ethiopian Emperor Sarsa Dengel fought back in 1588, and by 1589 the Ottomans had to leave again. They were finally driven out in the late 1500s but kept control of the coast until Italy took over Eritrea in the late 1800s.

In 1734, an Afar leader named Kedafu created the Mudaito Dynasty in Ethiopia, which later also ruled the southern Denkel lowlands of Eritrea, bringing them into the Sultanate of Aussa. The northern coastline of Denkel was controlled by smaller Afar sultanates, like the Sultanate of Rahayta, the Sultanate of Beylul, and the Sultanate of Bidu.

Italian Eritrea

Main article: Italian Eritrea

The borders of modern Eritrea were set during the time when European countries were competing for land in Africa. On November 15, 1869, a local leader sold land around the Bay of Assab to an Italian missionary working for an Italian shipping company. This area was used as a place for ships to stop and refuel because of the newly built Suez Canal. In 1882, the Italian government took control of the Assab area and later took over most of the Eritrean coast after the Egyptians left in February 1885.

After the death of Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV in 1889, General Oreste Baratieri took the highlands along the Eritrean coast, and Italy declared the start of Italian Eritrea, a colony of the Kingdom of Italy. In the Treaty of Wuchale signed that same year, Menelik II of Shewa agreed to Italy's control over lands belonging to his rivals in exchange for money and weapons. After Menelik became Emperor Menelik II, ruling from 1889 to 1913, the treaty became official for all of Ethiopia.

In 1888, Italy began building important projects in its new colony. The Eritrean Railway was finished to Saati in 1888 and reached Asmara in the highlands by 1911. The Asmara–Massawa Cableway was the longest cableway in the world at the time but was taken apart by the British during World War II. Italy also invested in farming and provided city services in Asmara and Massawa. Many Eritreans were hired to work for the government, especially in the police and public works. Thousands of Eritreans also joined the Italian army, fighting in wars in Libya and Ethiopia.

Italy also opened many factories making everyday items like buttons, oil, pasta, building materials, meat, tobacco, and leather goods. By 1939, there were about 2,198 factories, and most workers were Eritrean citizens. Starting industries led to more Italians and Eritreans moving to cities. The number of Italians in Eritrea grew from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years. With more people working in factories, trade and farming also grew, with some farms owned by Eritreans.

In 1922, Benito Mussolini became leader of Italy and made big changes to the government in Italian Eritrea. After he declared the start of the Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (along with parts of northern Ethiopia) and Italian Somaliland were combined with Ethiopia to form Italian East Africa. This time was marked by Italy trying to build a new Roman Empire. Eritrea became the industrial center of Italian East Africa.

After 1935, Italy built many buildings in Asmara in a style called art deco. They built over 400 buildings, including the Fiat Tagliero Building and Cinema Impero. In 2017, Asmara was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO for its unique mix of architectural styles.

British administration

In 1941, British forces defeated the Italians in the Battle of Keren and took control of the country. The British managed Eritrea for about a decade. Before 1945, they used Italian equipment and workers to support the war effort and help the Allies in the Middle East. This period of economic activity ended after the war, as factories closed and Italians left. Many small factories that opened between 1936 and 1945 also closed because they couldn't compete with factories in Europe and the Middle East.

The British put Eritrea under military rule until Allied forces could decide what to do with it. With no agreement among the Allies, the British continued to govern Eritrea until 1950. During these years right after the war, the British suggested splitting Eritrea, with parts going to Sudan and parts to Ethiopia based on religion. After a peace treaty with Italy in 1947, the United Nations sent a group to decide Eritrea's future.

Annexation by Ethiopia

Main article: Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea

In the 1950s, the Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie wanted to take over Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. He asked the United States for help at meetings in 1950. In the United Nations, discussions continued about what should happen to these areas. The British and Americans wanted to give most of Eritrea to Ethiopia as a reward for helping during World War II. Eritrean groups asked the United Nations for a vote to decide if Eritrea should be independent.

The United Nations group arrived in Eritrea in early 1950 and returned to New York after six weeks to give their report. There were two reports. One, from Pakistan and Guatemala, said Eritrea should be independent after some years of being watched over. The other report, from Burma, Norway, and South Africa, said Eritrea should join Ethiopia.

After the United Nations voted in favor of joining Ethiopia in December 1950, Eritrea became part of Ethiopia through a loose union. Eritrea kept some of its own rules, a new flag, and control over local matters like police and taxes. But Ethiopia controlled foreign affairs, defense, money, and transportation. This decision did not follow what most Eritreans wanted, but it did promise democratic rights and some self-rule.

Independence

In 1958, a group of Eritreans started the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). They were students, professionals, and intelligent people who worked in secret to resist Ethiopia's control. On September 1, 1961, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), led by Hamid Idris Awate, began a fight for independence. In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie closed the Eritrean parliament and took over the area. The Eritrean War of Independence lasted 30 years against different Ethiopian governments until 1991, when the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) defeated Ethiopian forces in Eritrea and helped other Ethiopian groups take over the capital, Addis Ababa.

In the 1980s, a group called the Eritrea Inter-Agency Consortium helped with development projects for the Eritrean freedom fighters.

After a referendum in Eritrea watched by the United Nations in 1993, where people voted overwhelmingly to be independent, Eritrea declared independence and was recognized by other countries. The EPLF took control, created a government with only one party, and stopped any other political activities. As of 2024, there have been no elections. On May 28, 1993, Eritrea joined the United Nations as its 182nd member.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Eritrea

Eritrea is a country in East Africa. It is next to the Red Sea, with Sudan to its west, Ethiopia to the south, and Djibouti to the southeast. The land in Eritrea changes a lot, with high mountains and flat areas.

The country has different kinds of plants and animals. You can find many types of birds and mammals, like Abyssinian hares and warthogs. Some places have forests, while others have dry lands. Eritrea also has beautiful coastlines and islands.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Eritrea

See also: G-15 (Eritrea) and National Assembly (Eritrea)

Isaias Afwerki
President

The People's Front for Democracy and Justice is the only legal party in Eritrea. Other political groups cannot form, though the unimplemented Constitution of 1997 allows for more than one party. The National Assembly has 150 seats. National elections have been planned many times but never held; as of 2025, Eritrea has never had an election. President Isaias Afwerki has been in office since the country became independent in 1993.

Eritrea is divided into six main areas called regions. These regions are further split into 58 smaller areas called districts. The regions help organize how the country is managed.

Eritrea belongs to groups like the United Nations and the African Union. It also works with other countries on issues like peace and trade.

National, regional, and local elections

Main article: Elections in Eritrea

Eritrea does not hold national elections. Local elections happened in the past, with the most recent ones in 2010 and 2011.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Regions of Eritrea and Districts of Eritrea

Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions. These areas are further divided into 58 districts.

The regions of Eritrea are the main way the country is organized. In 1993, when Eritrea became independent, it had ten areas. In 1996, these were combined into six regions. The borders of these regions are based on water catchment basins.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Eritrea

Eritrea is a member of the United Nations and the African Union. It also belongs to other groups like the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the World Customs Organization.

Eritrea had some problems with its neighbor Djibouti over islands, but it works with many countries around the world.

Military

Eritrea has a large military force. All young men and women must join the military for a time. This service can last many years, and some people have been in service for over ten years.

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Eritrea

Eritrea has been criticized for how it treats its people. Many people are not allowed to speak freely or write what they think. Some people are put in prison without trials for their beliefs or for trying to leave the country.

Media freedom

Main article: Freedom of press in Eritrea

See also: Mass media in Eritrea

Eritrea does not allow free news. All news comes from the government, and no private news outlets are allowed. Many journalists have been imprisoned for years without trials.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Eritrea

Eritrea's economy was valued at about $2.1 billion in 2020. From 2016 to 2019, its economy grew quickly, but this slowed down in later years because of world events. Mining and farming each made up about 20% of the country's money in 2021. Money sent home by people living outside Eritrea also helped the economy.

Eritrea has built many dams to help with farming and other needs. The country does not have its own oil, but it is looking into using wind, sun, and water for power. Tourism, though small, has been growing, with people visiting places like the capital city, Asmara, and nearby islands. Eritrea has roads, airports, and a railway, though some parts of the railway are still being fixed after damage from past wars.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Eritrea

Sources differ about how many people live in Eritrea. Some think it might be as low as 3.5 million, while others think it could be as high as 6.4 million. The country has never done a big count of its people, called a census. In 2020, about 41% of people were children under 15 years old. Most people, about 54%, were between 15 and 65 years old.

Eritrea has nine main groups of people. The Tigrinya make up about 55% and the Tigre about 30%. Other groups speak languages from the Afroasiatic family, like the Saho, Hedareb, Afar, and Bilen. There are also Nilotic groups such as the Kunama and Nara. The Rashaida people, who speak Arabic, make up about 2% of the population and live along the northern coast and in parts of Sudan.

Eritrea has many languages. There is no single official language, but Tigrinya, Arabic, and English are commonly used, especially in schools and jobs. Italian, once the colonial language, is spoken by only a few people.

The two main religions in Eritrea are Christianity and Islam. About 63% of people are Christian and 37% are Muslim, though numbers can vary. The government recognizes certain Christian and Muslim groups but makes it hard for others to practice freely.

Eritrea has made progress in health care. Life expectancy has gone up from about 39 years in 1960 to about 66 years in 2020. Many children are now vaccinated, and diseases like malaria have decreased. However, there are still not enough doctors, and diseases like malaria and tuberculosis remain common.

Education in Eritrea includes five levels: pre-primary, primary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary. There are many students and schools, but challenges remain, such as high class sizes and costs that can keep children from attending school.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Eritrea

Eritrean culture is rich and varied, reflecting the many people who live there and their long history. The country has many stories, poems, songs, and traditions that come from all nine groups of people. Theatre and painting are also important, often showing the history of the Eritrean people.

One special part of Eritrean culture is the coffee ceremony. Coffee is very important and is served in three rounds when people visit or during celebrations. The first round is called awel, the second kalaay, and the third bereka.

Traditional clothes differ among the groups. In cities, many people wear everyday clothes like jeans and shirts. In offices, both men and women may wear suits. Some traditional clothes include bright white gowns for women and white shirts and pants for men.

World Heritage Site and Italian architecture

On 8 July 2017, the capital city of Asmara became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The city has many beautiful buildings from the time when Italy ruled Eritrea. These buildings include Art Deco, futurist, and modernist styles. Asmara grew quickly from a small town, and many new and exciting designs were tried there.

The city has buildings in many styles, including neo-Romanesque, Art Deco, and Cubist. Some famous buildings are the Cinema Impero, the Africa Pension Building, and the Fiat Tagliero Building.

Music

Main article: Music of Eritrea

Each group in Eritrea has its own styles of music and dancing. Traditional instruments include the krar, kebero, begena, masenqo, and wata. Famous singers include Helen Meles, Dehab Faytinga, Ruth Abraha, and Bereket Mengisteab.

Dancing is important in Eritrean culture, with each group having its own way of dancing. Some dances involve shaking shoulders and moving in circles, while others have different steps and speeds.

Cuisine

Traditional Eritrean food often includes injera, a type of flatbread, served with a spicy stew made from meat or fish. Eritrean food is similar to that of neighboring Ethiopia but often includes more seafood because of the coast. The food is usually lighter, with more tomatoes and less butter.

Because of its history with Italy, Eritrean food also has Italian influences, such as pasta and dishes with curry powder. Common meals include pasta with tomato sauce, lasagna, and veal Milanese.

Sport

Main article: Sport in Eritrea

Football and cycling are very popular in Eritrea.

Cycling has been a part of Eritrean life since the colonial time. The Tour of Eritrea is a big cycling event that started in 1946. Eritrea’s cycling teams are very strong in Africa, and some riders have competed in big international races like the Tour de France. Eritrean athletes have also succeeded in other sports, like running and skiing.