Italian East Africa

Italian East Africa was a colonial area controlled by the Kingdom of Italy in the Horn of Africa from 1936 to 1941. It was created by Benito Mussolini after Italy took over Ethiopia during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. This area included places like Italian Somaliland, Italian Eritrea, and Ethiopia itself, all managed together under one government.

The Italian leaders tried to strengthen their control by building roads, planning cities, and making rules that separated Italians from the local people. They also tried to bring more Italians to live there, though this did not happen on a very large scale. Despite these efforts, many local people resisted Italian rule.

When World War II began, British forces attacked and took over Italian East Africa. After the war, Ethiopia’s leader Haile Selassie returned to power, and the areas that were once part of Italian East Africa were governed by Britain for a time before gaining their independence or joining Ethiopia.

Background

Italian ambitions and rise of fascism

Main articles: Italian fascism and Italian imperialism under fascism

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Italy wanted to grow its colonies, just like other European countries. Italy took control of Eritrea in 1890 and Italian Somaliland in 1905. But in 1896, Italy lost a war against the Ethiopian Empire. After World War I, many Italians felt unhappy because they thought their country didn’t get the land it deserved for helping win the war. This feeling helped Benito Mussolini and his Fascist regime take power in 1922.

Mussolini wanted Italy to be powerful again, like in ancient Roman times. He believed taking more land would make Italy stronger and solve economic problems. He used strong messages to convince people that Italy needed more colonial territories and that Ethiopia was a danger. He saw taking Ethiopia as a big win for his government.

Second Italo-Ethiopian War

Main article: Second Italo-Ethiopian War

In 1934, a small fight happened at a place called Ual-Ual between Italian and Ethiopian soldiers. This gave Mussolini an excuse to start a war. In October 1935, Italy began the Second Italo-Ethiopian War without telling Ethiopia first. Italy sent a big, modern army with airplanes and tanks. They also used a very harmful chemical called mustard gas in attacks, which was against international rules.

Italy’s army was much stronger than Ethiopia’s, and they won many battles. The leader of Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie, had to leave the country. Italian soldiers entered the capital city, Addis Ababa, on May 5, 1936. Soon after, Mussolini announced the creation of the Italian Empire.

Italian rule

The Fascist authorities began organizing their new territories. By a decree on 9 May 1936, King Victor Emmanuel III took the title of Emperor of Ethiopia. A new decree on 1 June 1936 combined Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia into one area called Italian East Africa. From then on, Ethiopia was no longer an administrative unit, and the name Italian East Africa became more common.

With the conquest of Ethiopia, Italy achieved one of its main colonial goals. This success was popular for Mussolini and helped Fascism, especially during a tough economic time. Italy planned to change the politics and institutions of the Horn of Africa and control the people living there.

Italian East Africa was managed by a single administrative unit, with Addis Ababa as its capital. It was overseen by Italy’s Ministry of Italian Africa and a Viceroy appointed by the Italian king. The area was divided into six governorates, which were further split into forty areas called commissariati.

Italian rule used centralized control and a “divide and conquer” strategy. The regime reorganized territories along ethnic and regional lines, favoring some groups over others. Laws were made to keep different groups separated, and there were restrictions on relationships between Italians and Africans. The Italian government also tried to limit the influence of certain religious groups while supporting others.

When Italian East Africa was created in 1936, it included Eritrea, Somalia, and the recently conquered Ethiopia. The territory was divided into six governorates. Eritrea and Somalia were enlarged with land from Ethiopia. The rest of “Italian Ethiopia” was split into several governorates, including Harar, Galla-Sidamo, Amhara, and Addis Abeba, which was later renamed Scioa Governorate.

Italy’s Fascist regime tried to encourage Italian farmers to move to Ethiopia, but few did. Most Italians settled in Eritrea and Somalia. Despite efforts, development was slow due to local resistance, lack of resources, and difficult conditions.

The Italians built many roads in the territory, spending much of the government’s money on this from 1937 to 1941. They constructed roads connecting major cities like Addis Ababa to Massawa, Mogadishu, and Assab. They also built airports and started an airline called Linea dell’Impero to connect Addis Ababa with Rome. Railways were also improved, including the important Djibouti–Addis Ababa Railway.

Farming was encouraged, especially in Ethiopia, but it was not as successful as hoped. Most exports were bananas and pineapples. Italy also tried to increase cotton production.

Before Fascism, education in Italian Somaliland and Eritrea was mostly handled by Christian missionaries. Under Mussolini, government schools were created to teach African children practical skills and spread Fascist ideas. The education focused on glorifying Italy and its history, with daily ceremonies and loyalty to the state. Italian children received a more advanced education.

In 1939, the population of Italian East Africa was about 12.1 million. Eritrea had around 1.5 million people, Ethiopia had 9.5 million, and Somalia had 1.1 million. By March 1940, there were about 170,000 Italian civilians in the region, most living in major cities. The number of Italian women increased significantly from 1938 onward as more infrastructure was built.

Archaeological work began in 1938 with studies of ancient sites like the obelisks of Axum and the rock churches of Lalibela. Excavations were also conducted around Adulis and the Dahlak Islands. Efforts were made to protect the region’s artistic and historical heritage.

Guerrilla war

Main article: Arbegnoch

After Italy took over parts of Ethiopia, the fight wasn't completely over. Local fighters, called the Arbegnoch, kept resisting the Italian rule. Even after the main war ended, these fighters continued their efforts, making it hard for the Italians to fully control the area. The Italians faced strong resistance in many places, especially in the mountains and countryside.

Fighting continued for several years, with both sides trying to gain control. The Italians held the cities and main roads, but the resistance fighters controlled much of the rural areas. When World War II began, the situation changed, and the Italians found it harder to keep their hold on the region.

Atrocities

Yekatit 12

Main article: Yekatit 12

In February 1937, an attempt was made on the life of an Italian general, Rodolfo Graziani. Following this, Italian forces carried out severe actions against local people in Addis Ababa. Many civilians were harmed during these actions, leading to widespread damage and loss of life. This event became known as Yekatit 12. As a result of the backlash, Graziani was replaced by another leader who tried different methods to manage the situation.

Concentration camps

Main articles: Nocra prison camp and Danane concentration camp

The Italians set up harsh detention centers, such as Nocra prison camp in Eritrea and Danane concentration camp near Mogadishu. These camps held political dissidents and resistance fighters under very tough conditions. Prisoners faced extreme heat, poor food, and disease, and many suffered greatly. The Danane camp was especially difficult, with prisoners transported over long distances and facing sickness and poor living conditions.

Collapse

Second World War

Main article: East African campaign (World War II)

On June 10, 1940, Italy joined World War II by declaring war on Britain and France. This put Italian forces in Libya near Egypt and those in Italian East Africa close to British and French lands in the Horn of Africa. The war also made it hard for Allied ships to use the Mediterranean Sea and endangered important routes along the coast of East Africa, the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, and the Suez Canal.

Fighting began on June 13, 1940, when Italian planes attacked a base in Wajir in Kenya. In August 1940, Italian forces took over British Somaliland and added it to their control. Later, British and allied forces planned to push back against the Italians, supporting Ethiopian resistance groups. The fighting started in January 1941, and British and allied troops quickly made progress. They took many important places, including Asmara, Massawa, and Mogadishu. By April 1941, Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, was captured with little resistance. The remaining Italian forces surrendered later that year.

Treaty of Paris (1947)

Main article: Treaty of Paris between Italy and the Allied Powers

In February 1947, Italy signed a peace treaty giving up control of its African colonies, including Libya, Eritrea, and Somalia. The treaty also recognized Ethiopia as an independent country. Eritrea was placed under British control and later became part of Ethiopia. After the war, Italy was allowed to oversee Italian Somaliland for a time, but it was required to become independent within ten years. Both parts of Somalia became independent in 1960 and joined together to form the Somali Republic.

Legacy

The way Italy organized its lands in East Africa affected the people in Eritrea and Somalia. It helped them feel more connected to their own nations. However, the border between Ethiopia and Somalia remained unclear, causing problems later on. Some areas with Somali-speaking people, like the Ogaden and Haud regions, were given back to Ethiopia between 1948 and 1954, which added to the tension. Even though people in these areas felt stronger ties to their own nations than to colonial rulers, Eritrea faced big changes that made it hard to join back with Ethiopia.