History of Belgium

For most of its history, what is today Belgium was either a part of a larger territory, such as the medieval Carolingian Empire, or was divided into a number of smaller states. In the Middle Ages, the territory of present-day Belgium was fragmented into numerous feudal principalities, including the Duchy of Lower Lorraine, the Duchy of Brabant, the County of Flanders, the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, the County of Namur, the County of Hainaut and the County of Luxembourg. Belgium's modern shape can be traced back at least as far as the southern core of the medieval Burgundian Netherlands.

The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) later led to the split between a northern Dutch Republic and the Southern Netherlands from which Belgium and Luxembourg developed. After the defeat of the French in 1814, the Congress of Vienna created two new states, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. The Southern Netherlands rebelled during the 1830 Belgian Revolution, establishing the modern Belgian state, officially recognized at the London Conference of 1830. The first King of Belgium, Leopold I, assumed the throne in 1831.

The first half of the twentieth century was tumultuous. Its historic neutrality was violated in each of the World Wars. Belgium entered the second half of the twentieth century showing an unprecedented era of economic growth, as Belgium took an active role in the formation of the Benelux customs union with its neighbors. Ultimately, the Benelux union would serve as a model for the European Economic Community, a precursor to the European Union; to this day Brussels serves as the seat of many of the European Union institutions.

Domestically, the country has faced divisions over differences of language and unequal economic development. It is now divided into three regions: Dutch-speaking Flanders in the north, French-speaking Wallonia in the south, and bilingual Brussels in the middle. Since the 1990s, Belgium has become involved in several international conflicts, under the aegis of various United Nations peacekeeping forces. Environmental concerns brought down the Belgian government of Jean-Luc Dehaene's premiership. Since then, the Belgian political landscape has become increasingly politically fragmented.

Names

Belgium and Flanders were early names for the Burgundian Netherlands, which later became the Austrian Netherlands and then modern Belgium. The County of Flanders was where the Burgundian dukes first settled, and they added more lands later.

The word "Belgium" comes from Latin and was used by Julius Caesar. It described a place in what is now northern France, where a group of tribes called the Belgae lived. Later, during Roman times, the name Belgium was used for areas in Germany, Luxembourg, and France. Over time, the name began to refer to places further north, including the Netherlands and Belgium. It was during the Brabant Revolution in 1790 that Belgium started to mean the southern part of the Netherlands. This meaning became common after the revolution of 1830, when Belgium became independent from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

Prehistory

On the land that is now Belgium, scientists found old bones from a group of early humans called Neanderthal at a place called Engis in 1829–30. Some of these bones are very old, from about 100,000 years ago.

One of the earliest farming groups in Europe, called the LBK culture, reached the eastern part of Belgium around 5000 BC. They built walls around their villages to protect themselves. Later, new farming groups like the Michelsberg culture appeared, while some people continued to live by hunting and gathering.

During the Bronze Age, starting around 1750 BC, new groups arrived in Belgium, bringing with them the use of metal tools. These groups spoke languages related to what we now call Indo-European. By around 500 BC, tribes from a group called the Celtic people lived in the area and traded with places around the Mediterranean sea. Around 150 BC, people in Belgium began using coins for the first time.

Celtic and Roman periods

Main article: Gallia Belgica

When Julius Caesar came to the area now known as Belgium, the people living there were called the Belgae. They lived in parts of Belgium, France, and Germany. Caesar wrote that they were different from other groups in Gaul because of their language, laws, and customs. Some people think the Belgae had roots in both Celtic and Germanic cultures.

The Belgae lived in small groups or tribes. Some of these tribes in Belgium included the Menapii, Nervii, and the Germani cisrhenani. Life was simpler for these groups compared to others, and they lived in areas with forests and wetlands. As the Romans came to the region, they organized it into areas called provinces. Important towns such as Tongeren, Tournai, and Trier became centers of Roman life. Christianity also began to spread in this time, with the first known bishop, Servatius, teaching in Tongeren.

Early Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, areas that are now Belgium were influenced by both Roman and Germanic cultures. The regions along the coast, like Flanders, became part of areas ruled by Germanic tribes, while inland areas kept more Roman traditions. Important Frankish kings, such as Clovis I and Charlemagne, ruled much of this land, bringing it into larger empires.

Over time, the land now known as Belgium split into several smaller states, including the County of Flanders, the Duchy of Brabant, and others. These states often acted independently. Flanders became quite wealthy through trade and played a big role in the culture of Europe during this time.

Late Middle Ages and Renaissance

Many cities such as Ypres, Bruges, and Ghent gained special rights during this time. Trade grew thanks to groups like the Hanseatic League, and many beautiful Gothic buildings were built. As powerful rulers lost influence, nearby countries like France and England tried to control the area.

Over time, parts of what is now Belgium came under the control of Burgundy and later the Habsburgs. Cities like Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp became important places for trade and art. Artists and composers from this time created works that were admired across Europe.

Dutch Revolt and 80 Years' War

Main article: Dutch Revolt

See also: Dunkirkers

In the past, the land that is now Belgium was split into different areas. Some people became Protestant, mainly in the north, while others stayed Catholic in the south. This difference caused tension.

When King Philip II of Spain tried to stop Protestantism, parts of Belgium rebelled. This led to a long war called the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. The war brought many battles and hardships.

Spanish leaders tried to control the area, and there were many fights. Eventually, the northern parts became independent, while the southern parts stayed under Spanish rule. The people in the south spoke Romance languages, while Dutch was spoken in the north.

17th and 18th centuries

Further information: Southern Netherlands

During the 1600s and 1700s, Antwerp stayed strong even though it was blocked by nearby Dutch forces. It became a key place for making things and creating art. Famous artists like the Brueghels, Peter Paul Rubens, and Van Dyck made beautiful paintings during this time.

Many wars happened between France and the Dutch Republic. France wanted to take control of areas now known as Belgium. There were several big wars, and much of the fighting took place in Belgium. After these wars, Belgium came under the control of Austria, forming what was called the Austrian Netherlands.

In 1789, there was a revolution called the Brabant Revolution. People in Belgium wanted to be free from Austrian rule. They even created a new state called the United States of Belgium. But the revolution did not last, and Austrian rule returned.

Later, French forces invaded Belgium and took it over in 1795. Belgium became part of France. New rulers came from France, and many changes happened. The French brought new laws that treated everyone equally, but many people were unhappy with French rule. Taxes were high, and many Belgians had to leave their homes. Still, this time also brought new opportunities for trade and business, helping Belgium grow in the years to come.

United Kingdom of the Netherlands

Main article: United Kingdom of the Netherlands

After Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo in 1815, leaders from Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia decided at the Congress of Vienna to combine the former Austrian Netherlands and the Seven United Provinces into one country called the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. This new country was meant to protect against future attacks from France and was ruled by King William I.

King William I ruled with great power and made many changes. He wanted to modernize the economy and helped start new industries, especially in the south where coal mines and textile factories grew. However, he did not treat everyone fairly. He did not like the main religion in the south, the Roman Catholic Church, and tried to control schools and languages, which made many people unhappy. People in the south felt they had less power and were treated poorly, leading to growing anger toward the government.

Belgian revolution

Main article: Belgian Revolution

The Belgian Revolution started in August 1830 when people in Brussels were inspired by a play and began singing patriotic songs. This led to fights in the streets. Some wealthy people who supported the revolution were worried about the violence and wanted to find a peaceful solution with the Dutch rulers.

The people of Belgium felt they did not have enough say in the government and did not like the Dutch leader. They also felt left out because most people spoke Dutch, but many in Belgium spoke French. In addition, many Belgians were Catholic and felt unhappy with some rules.

At first, the Dutch king thought the protests would stop on their own. He offered to forgive the protesters but sent soldiers to Brussels. The soldiers faced strong resistance from the people, who built barriers to defend themselves. After fighting, the Dutch soldiers left Brussels. There were also battles in other parts of Belgium. Dutch ships attacked the city of Antwerp after it was taken by revolutionaries.

Even though the 1815 agreement did not allow Belgium to be independent, other European countries showed support for the Belgian cause. In November 1830, leaders from Britain, France, Russia, Prussia, and Austria met and agreed to stop the fighting. They decided that Belgium should be its own country and stay neutral in future conflicts. In 1831, Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg became the first king of Belgium. The day he accepted the constitution, July 21, 1831, is still celebrated as a national holiday today.

A temporary government was set up to discuss independence with the Dutch. Belgium officially declared independence on October 4, 1830. A special group created a constitution that made Belgium an independent country with a constitutional monarchy. However, only wealthy French-speaking people and religious leaders could vote. The Catholic church was allowed to operate freely.

Belgium and the Netherlands continued to have disagreements for eight more years. In 1839, a treaty was signed that settled the border between the two countries. Belgium lost some areas, while the Netherlands kept others. The five major European powers promised to protect Belgium's neutrality. This promise became important when Belgium's neutrality was challenged at the start of World War I.

Independence to World War I

Main article: Belgium in the long nineteenth century

Industrial Revolution

See also: Industrial Revolution § Belgium, History of Wallonia § Industry, and Sillon industriel

Belgium became an important industrial country during this time, especially in the southern region known as Wallonia. The growth began in the mid-1820s and sped up after 1830. Coal was a big reason for this growth, as factories needed it to make things. Factories built furnaces and mills in areas where coal was found, like around Liège and Charleroi. A man named John Cockerill from England helped start many of these factories.

Industry spread through valleys like the Sillon industriel, Haine, Sambre, and Meuse. By 1830, Belgium had many coal mines and used steam engines to pump water out. Coal was sold locally and also to other countries. The textile industry, making clothes from cotton and flax, was also very important. Ghent was a major industrial city until the 1880s.

Railways

Main article: History of rail transport in Belgium

Belgium built an early railway system to help its industries grow. After 1830, Belgium created a network of railways connecting cities, ports, and mining areas. This helped Belgium become a center for railways in the region. In 1835, the first railway in continental Europe was built between Brussels and Mechelen by King Léopold I. Private companies built smaller railways, which became models for other places.

By the 1900s, Belgium was exporting railway parts and materials. One businessman, Édouard Empain, known as the "Tramway King," built transport systems around the world, including the Paris Métro.

Other important businesses included Cockerill-Sambre (steel), the chemical factories of Ernest Solvay, and the firearms maker Fabrique Nationale de Herstal.

Liberalism and Catholicism

See also: Liberalism in Belgium and First School War

Before the late 1800s, Belgium was divided between the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party. The Liberals wanted less influence from the Church, but this led to big debates, especially over schools. This conflict, called the "First School War," happened from 1879 to 1884. The Catholics won, and their party stayed in power until 1917.

There were also disagreements about universities. Secular universities like the Free University of Brussels competed with Catholic ones like the Catholic University of Leuven.

Linguistic conflict

The north of Belgium spoke Dutch, while the south spoke French and other local languages. After Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830, French became the official language, which made Dutch speakers feel less important. This changed over time. By the 1920s and 1930s, laws were passed to give Dutch equal status in the north. French stayed the official language in the south, and Brussels became bilingual. There were also movements to protect each language's culture.

Foreign relations and military policy

See also: Belgium and the Franco-Prussian War

Belgium stayed neutral during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71, but the war nearby caused its army to prepare. Later, Belgium reformed its military. By 1909, Belgium required eight years of military service and five years in the reserves. New forts were built along the border, including at Antwerp, Liège, and Namur.

Rise of the Socialist Party and the trade unions

See also: Belgian Labour Party and Belgian general strikes

The economy was slow from 1873 to 1895, which caused workers to protest. The Belgian Workers' Party started in 1885 and asked for big changes to society. Workers went on strikes, sometimes leading to protests. Despite some violence, Belgium started early social programs like sickness compensation in 1894 and old-age insurance in 1900.

Catholic governments and social policy

Catholic governments introduced many reforms to help workers. Laws were passed to protect workers from unfair pay, improve housing, and limit child labor. In 1900, the first law for old-age pensions was approved. Other laws helped with unemployment, health services, and rest days for workers. Education laws also changed, making school mandatory for children aged 6 to 14 by 1914.

Voting rights

See also: Belgian general strike of 1893

In 1893, Belgium started giving all men the right to vote after big protests. But the system still gave more votes to richer people. Later, in 1918, King Albert changed the voting system so every man had one vote. Women got the right to vote later, in 1948.

Culture

Artistic and literary culture in Belgium grew in the late 19th century. Historians studied the country's past, and artists explored new styles.

Architecture and Art Nouveau

See also: Art Nouveau

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, big buildings in Belgium were often designed in a classic style. But Brussels also became famous for a new style called Art Nouveau. Architects like Victor Horta, Paul Hankar, and Henry van de Velde created beautiful buildings, some of which are still there today.

Empire

See also: Belgian colonial empire

Stanard argues that many Belgians supported their empire, even though some thought they didn’t want it. Belgians believed in their empire and showed this through many actions and messages about their colonies.

Congo Free State and Belgian Congo

Main articles: Congo Free State and Belgian Congo

King Leopold II of Belgium helped set up trading places along the Congo River between 1879 and 1884. At the Berlin Conference from 1884 to 1885, the area was given to Leopold, who named it the Congo Free State. It was meant to be a place where all European traders could come. The land was huge—almost 80 times bigger than Belgium.

The Congo Free State was run by Leopold’s company, and many terrible things happened there. People were forced to work very hard to collect rubber to sell for money. Because of this hard work and sickness, many people became very sick or died, and families had fewer children. No exact numbers are known.

In 1908, Belgium took over the colony after learning about these problems.

China 1902–1931

The Belgian Tianjin Concession in China started in 1902. It didn’t get much money or people, but it did help bring electric lights and trolley cars to Tianjin in 1906, making it China’s first city with modern public transport. Belgian companies supplied all the equipment, and by 1914, the system also reached other areas nearby.

Ruanda-Urundi 1917–1961

After Germany lost World War I, Belgium took over Ruanda-Urundi.

In 1962, Ruanda-Urundi became independent, splitting into two countries: Rwanda and Burundi.

World War I

See also: Belgium in World War I

When World War I started, Germany invaded Belgium and Luxembourg. This was part of a plan to quickly reach Paris. Because of the threat to France, Britain joined the war. The Belgian army, much smaller than the German army, fought hard to slow down the German forces. Their efforts gave France and Britain time to get ready to fight back.

Belgian soldiers played an important role in the early days of the war. They helped delay the German plans and protect key areas. King Albert I led the army, while the government moved to France. Soldiers from Belgian Congo also helped in Africa, and a few served on the Eastern Front.

During the war, Germany controlled most of Belgium. They took many resources and caused hardship for the people. Many Belgians and French people were sadly treated harshly by German forces. To help feed the people, an American engineer named Herbert Hoover organized aid. His group worked with Belgian leaders to bring food to the country, helping millions of people each day throughout the war.

Interwar period

King Albert returned as a hero after the war. Belgium had suffered greatly because the Germans took valuable machines during their control. Only a small number of trains worked, and many factories and homes were destroyed.

Even with these challenges, Belgium recovered quickly. The first games after the war were held in Antwerp in 1920. In 1921, Luxembourg joined Belgium in a special agreement for trade.

During this time, new art styles grew in Belgium. Famous artists like René Magritte created interesting and dream-like paintings. Comic books also became very popular. One famous series, The Adventures of Tintin, began in 1929 and many children loved to read it. Belgium became known for its wonderful comic books, which were enjoyed all over Europe.

World War II

Main article: Belgium in World War II

Belgium tried to stay neutral before World War II, but on May 10, 1940, German forces invaded the country. After 18 days of fighting, Belgian forces surrendered on May 28. The government escaped to form a government in exile.

After the defeat in 1940, many Belgian soldiers and civilians escaped to Britain to join the Belgian army in Exile. They formed the 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade, known as the Brigade Piron, and took part in the Normandy Invasion and battles in France and the Netherlands. Belgians also served in British special forces and the Royal Air Force during the war.

Belgium was occupied by Germany from 1940 until liberation in September 1944. During this time, many Belgians resisted the occupation in various ways, such as helping Allied airmen escape and hiding people who were at risk.

Belgium was liberated by Allied forces in late 1944. Brussels was freed on September 3, and Antwerp was seized by the British Second Army on September 4. The Battle of the Scheldt was fought to open the port of Antwerp for supplies.

WWII to present

"Royal Question"

After the war, Léopold III returned from being held by German forces. There was concern about whether he had worked with enemy leaders, causing a big debate in Belgium. He spent time away in Switzerland until 1950, while his brother Prince Charles acted as leader of the country.

A vote in 1950 showed mixed feelings about Léopold returning to power. Because of the close vote and protests, Léopold III decided to step down in 1951 in favor of his son Baudouin.

Occupation of Germany, Korean War and EDC

Belgian soldiers were sent to help control parts of West Germany after the war. The last soldiers left in 2002.

In 1950, Belgian volunteers went to support the United Nations in the Korean War. They fought in important battles and many were lost. The last soldiers came home in 1955.

Benelux and Europe

On September 5, 1944, the Benelux Customs Union was created, later becoming the Benelux Economic Union in 1960. The Benelux Parliament started in 1955.

The Treaty of Brussels in 1948 led to the creation of NATO, with Belgium joining in 1949. NATO’s main office is in Brussels.

Belgium was among the first countries to create the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952 and the European Economic Community in 1957. Belgium joined the Schengen area in 1985.

Belgian "Economic Miracle"

After the war, Belgium received help from the United States through the Marshall Plan, which gave money to rebuild the country. The government worked to improve the economy and people’s living standards.

Even with improvements, many people still lived in poor conditions. Differences grew between the Dutch-speaking north (Flanders) and the French-speaking south (Wallonia), with Flanders gaining more support and Wallonia facing economic challenges.

Second "School War" 1950–1959

After elections in 1950, a new government led by the Christian Social Party changed laws to support private (Catholic) schools. This caused disagreement with other groups. Later governments tried to balance these changes, leading to a compromise known as the "School Pact" in 1958.

Congolese independence and the Congo Crisis

In 1960, after protests, Belgium granted independence to the Belgian Congo, which became the First Republic of Congo. There were conflicts and changes in leadership, with some areas trying to break away. Belgium sent forces to help during these troubles.

General Strike of 1960–61

In 1960, workers in Wallonia went on strike to protest economic changes and ask for more regional control. Though the strike was meant to include everyone, workers in Flanders were less supportive.

"Linguistic Wars"

Differences over language became very important in Belgium. The country split its university along language lines in 1968, and the government changed because of these issues.

Rise of the federal state

Because of continuing disagreements about language and regional powers, Belgium changed its government several times. These changes created different areas with their own powers, turning Belgium into a country where different parts have control over many decisions.

Political parties

Starting in the 1960s, many political parties split into Dutch-speaking and French-speaking groups because of continuing disagreements about language and regional powers.

1990 to present

Belgium took part in many international missions and faced economic challenges. The country also went through several government changes and political debates, especially around language and regional powers.

In 2025, Bart De Wever became the new prime minister.