History of Papua New Guinea

The prehistory of Papua New Guinea goes back to around 50,000–60,000 years ago, when people first began to settle in the area. Agriculture started at least 7000 years ago in the New Guinea Highlands, and trade networks grew across the region. Important cultural changes happened with the spread of Austronesian languages and the rise of the Lapita culture.

In 1545, the Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez gave the island its name, "New Guinea". European powers began colonizing the area in the 1880s, splitting the land between the German Empire and the British Empire. During WWI, the Allies took over the German part, and after the war, the League of Nations let Australia manage it. In 1949, Australia passed an Act to combine the territories of Papua and New Guinea. Finally, on 16 September 1975, Papua New Guinea became an independent country.

Archaeology

See also: Aitape Skull and Ambum stone

Archaeological evidence shows that humans arrived on New Guinea possibly as long as 60,000 years ago, though this is still being studied. They likely came by sea from Southeast Asia during the Last Glacial Period, when ocean levels were much lower. Early people were hunters and gatherers, but they also took care of forests to grow food. There are signs that people were farming in places like Kuk around the same time farming began in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

People lived in the highlands of New Guinea as far back as 50,000 years ago, not just along the coasts. Archaeological findings show that sweet potatoes and pigs came later, but shellfish and fish have always been important foods for people living near the coast.

Stone tools found on the Huon Peninsula date back 40,000 years. Before farming fully developed, people already grew some plants like sago, Canarium indicum, and karuka. Tools made from obsidian, good for harvesting plants, were traded as far back as 23,000 years ago.

Farming began on its own in the New Guinea highlands around 7000 BC, making it one of the few places where people started growing crops without influence from others. Evidence from the Kuk Swamp shows people grew crops like taro and bananas for thousands of years.

Communities linked by trade networks shared goods and ideas over long distances. The Lapita culture reached the area about 3,300 years ago, bringing new ways of living, including pottery, pigs, chickens, and new fishing methods. These trading connections helped spread foods like bananas and sugarcane to other parts of the world.

European contact

Some ships from China and Southeast Asia may have visited the island long ago, and there might have been contact with people living in New Guinea. The first European to find the island was a Portuguese explorer who reached the north coast. Soon after, another Portuguese explorer found the west coast, and a Spanish explorer saw the island too.

When Europeans arrived, the people of New Guinea had useful farming methods. They traded along the coast and in the interior, swapping things like pottery and shells.

The name "Papua" might come from a local word describing the frizzy hair of some people. The name "New Guinea" was given because the people looked similar to those from a place in Africa called Guinea.

For many years, Europeans knew little about the people of New Guinea until a Russian scientist spent time living with them and wrote about their lives.

By the 1800s, there was some trading with nearby islands. In the 1860s, people from New Guinea were taken to work in faraway places, which stopped in 1884. Those who returned brought new ideas, and this helped create a new local language.

Christianity began in New Guinea in 1847 when French missionaries arrived. They started teaching about their beliefs, though they faced challenges. More missionaries came in the following years from different groups.

Europeans began settling in New Guinea in the 1870s. Missions and trading ports were set up, and crops were introduced that still have names linked to their Russian introducers.

In 1884, the island was split between two countries. Germany claimed the northern part, and Britain took the southern part. The borders were settled a few years later.

Territory of Papua

Main article: Territory of Papua

In 1883, the Colony of Queensland wanted to take control of the southern part of eastern New Guinea, but the British government did not allow it. Later, when Germany started settling in the north, Britain declared a protectorate over the southern coast of New Guinea and nearby islands in 1884. This area, called British New Guinea, was fully taken over on September 4, 1888. In 1902, it was placed under the control of the Commonwealth of Australia. After the Papua Act was passed in 1905, the area was renamed the Territory of Papua, and official Australian control began in 1906. This continued until Papua New Guinea gained independence in 1975.

Gold was discovered near the Mambare River in 1895. In 1902, Papua was put under the control of the newly federated Australia. The Ritter Island eruption in 1888 caused big waves that reached the mainland. During the Pacific War, Japan invaded Papua in 1941, and normal government stopped until after the war.

In 1908, trading birds-of-paradise was stopped in Papua because people were worried the species might disappear.

German New Guinea

Main article: German New Guinea

When Europe wanted more coconut oil, a big trading company called Godeffroy's of Hamburg started buying goods from the New Guinea Islands. In 1884, the German Empire claimed the northeast part of the island and let a trading company manage it. This company could make rules and talk with local people, but the German government handled other countries. Later, in 1899, the German government took direct control of the area, calling it German New Guinea.

At first, the German administration was managed by a company, but by 1889 the government took over.^: 8  The company tried to grow crops but switched to trading when that didn’t work well. They set up trading places in 1897 and stopped others from trading there. Trade still happened secretly inside the borders until the 1930s.^{: 219–221}  In nearby British areas, gold was discovered near the Mambare River in 1895.

New Guinea was mostly a business. Many local people worked on cocoa and coconut farms. In 1914, when the First World War started, Australia took over the German area. The farms were given to Australian soldiers, and in 1921 the League of Nations let Australia look after New Guinea. The farms and gold mining helped the area grow.

New Guinea first limited the trade of special birds and later stopped it completely in 1922 when Australia was in charge.^: 97–98

Social and political changes

When European rulers came to the area, life for the people of New Guinea changed. Fighting between groups lessened, and more people moved to towns to work growing crops for money. There was a big difference between the rulers and the local people, which led to what were called cargo cults.

Trade grew, with people trading things like copra, pearls, shells, and bird skins. Travel also changed a lot. The rulers stopped the old fights between groups and built roads, making it easier for people to travel and work in new places.

Rulers talked with village leaders or sometimes just one person from several villages to help them. In German New Guinea, a simple language called Tok Pisin started to be used more. In areas ruled by Britain and later Australia, a different simple language called Hiri Motu became common, while formal English was taught in schools.

Territory of New Guinea

Main article: Territory of New Guinea

When World War I began in 1914, Australian forces took control of German New Guinea and kept it until the war ended. After the war, an international group called the League of Nations allowed Australia to manage this area, called the Territory of New Guinea, starting in 1921.

During World War II, Japanese forces took over much of this area, including islands like Bougainville and New Britain. Later, Australian and American forces pushed them back. Even though both Papua and New Guinea were under Australia’s control, they were managed separately until 1949 because of different legal rules.

After the wars, more farms were set up along the coast, and gold was found in the 1920s, becoming a major resource. Explorers also discovered many people living in the highland valleys in the 1930s.

Exploration of Mandated Territory of New Guinea

Akmana Expedition 1929–1930

The exploration of Papua–New Guinea has been an ongoing journey. Until recent years, much of this exploration was not planned but happened as miners, missionaries, and adventurers traveled through the area, each with their own goals. Many of these people focused on their tasks rather than keeping detailed records, so our understanding of these explorations has not always kept up with the actual exploring.

One clear example of recorded exploration is the Akmana Gold Prospecting Company's Field Party. They carried out two expeditions from September to December 1929 and from mid-February to the end of June 1930. The team traveled by ship from Madang up the coast to the Sepik River, then moved inland along several rivers. During their first expedition, they searched for gold in the tributaries of a river but did not find enough to continue. After returning to Madang at the end of 1929, some members went back to Sydney for new instructions.

The second expedition returned to their base and continued searching along different rivers. Again, they did not find any gold worth pursuing. The team included experienced members who had served in World War I and had previous experience in New Guinea. They met many local people during their journeys, often with the help of a local leader named Drybow/Dribu, who helped ensure peaceful interactions. Although they did not find gold, the expedition provided valuable information about the region. Some items collected, like special hair pieces called wigs, were donated to museums in Australia and elsewhere.

World War II

Main article: New Guinea Campaign

Further information: Pacific Islands home front during World War II

When World War II began, Japanese forces invaded New Guinea. They took control of many areas, but parts of Papua stayed safe because of its location and tough terrain.

Australian and American troops fought back against the Japanese. One important battle happened along the Kokoda Track, where local people helped care for injured soldiers. After many tough battles, the Japanese were pushed back. The fighting was hard, but the Allies kept going until the war ended in 1945.

The war brought many changes to the region. People were exposed to new ideas and ways of living. New languages like Tok Pisin and Hiri Motu became more common, helping people communicate better.

Territory of Papua and New Guinea

Main article: Territory of Papua and New Guinea

After Japan surrendered in 1945, control of Papua and New Guinea returned to civil leaders. The Territory of Papua and New Guinea was formed in 1949, uniting both areas under one government.

New Guinea became a trust territory under United Nations supervision, with Australia in charge. Local people began to take on more roles in government. A Legislative Council was created in 1951, and later replaced by a House of Assembly in 1963. By 1964, most members of this Assembly were from Papua New Guinea itself.

In 1971, the territory’s name changed to Papua New Guinea. Australia helped prepare the area for self-rule and independence. By 1975, Papua New Guinea was ready to stand on its own, and it became an independent country on September 16, 1975.

Independence

Elections in 1972 led to a new leader, Michael Somare, who promised to guide the country to self-government and independence. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on 1 December 1973 and fully independent on 16 September 1975. The country joined the United Nations (UN) on 10 October 1975.

After independence, many Australian workers left, and there was not enough training for local people to take over. This caused problems and made some areas less well-served. By the 1980s, the government had changed, making it harder to manage things well.

The voting system was changed to try to create clearer political parties, but this did not work. New local governments were created in 1976. Leaders changed through voting in Parliament. Michael Somare was prime minister after the 1977 election but lost his position in 1980. He returned in 1982 but lost again in 1985.

Papua New Guinea has had many changes in leadership and political parties. Leaders often changed because of votes in Parliament. Rules were made to try to make government more stable, but these did not always work well. In the 1990s, new rules were made to help with local government and voting.

Bougainville Island revolt

The island of Bougainville had a big mine that was very important to the country. People there felt they were not getting enough benefits. In 1988, a group started fighting for more control. This led to a long conflict. A peace agreement was made in 2001, and Bougainville was allowed to have more self-government. Plans were made for a vote on independence in the future.

Governance

After independence, some areas saw more fighting between groups. This sometimes turned into gang violence in cities. The government and police tried to stop this, but it was hard. Rules were made to help the government work better, but these did not always work well. Money was a problem, and some leaders were accused of doing bad things.

Economics

In the early years after independence, the economy grew slowly. A big mine opened in 1982, which helped. But when the Bougainville mine closed, there were money problems. Other industries like oil and forests helped the economy grow again. But there were still problems with unfairness and not enough services.

Ethnic tensions

There have been times when people of different backgrounds had trouble getting along. In 2009, a fight at a factory led to bigger problems between local people and others.

Natural disasters

In 1997, a drought caused by weather changes hurt many people. In 1998, an earthquake caused big waves that hurt even more. Other storms and floods also caused problems.

2000s to present

In 2001, a center was set up with help from Australia. There were more changes in government and rules about voting. In 2012, two new areas became official parts of the country.

In 2019, people in Bougainville voted to choose independence, though this needed more talks. In 2022, James Marape continued as prime minister after elections. In January 2024, riots happened in Port Moresby and Lae after protests about pay, and many lives were lost. The prime minister declared a state of emergency.