Ismailism

Ismailism is a special branch of Shia Islam. It is also called Batiniyya, which means "esotericism." This means that Ismailis focus on the hidden, deeper meanings of Islamic teachings, rather than just the outer, surface level.

Ismailis get their name from Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar, whom they believe was the chosen spiritual leader after Ja'far al-Sadiq. This is different from Twelver Shia, who believe Musa al-Kazim, Isma'il's younger brother, was the true leader. Ismaili beliefs were shaped by Neoplatonism, an ancient philosophy.

After the death of Muhammad ibn Isma'il in the 8th century CE, Ismaili teachings grew into what they are today. Most Ismailis are Nizaris, who recognize Aga Khan V as their 50th hereditary Imam. Other groups are called Tayyibi. You can find Ismailis in many places around the world, including Central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Yemen, Lebanon, Malaysia, Syria, India, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, East Africa, Angola, Bangladesh, and South Africa. In recent years, many have also moved to Europe, Russia, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Trinidad and Tobago.

History

Further information: Musta'li Ismailism, Tayyibi Isma'ilism, Nizari Isma'ilism, History of Nizari Isma'ilism, and Isma'ili Constitution

Succession crisis

Main article: Succession to Muhammad

Ismailism began as part of early Shia groups that formed after a big debate about who should lead the Muslim community after Muhammad. The Shia believed that Ali, Muhammad's cousin, and his family should be the leaders. This belief caused some disagreements, especially when the third leader, Uthman, was killed, and Ali became leader with support from many people.

After Ali became leader, some people, including Aisha, Muhammad's wife, and Uthman's family, wanted Ali to punish those responsible for Uthman's death. Ali did not agree, and this led to a battle called the Battle of the Camel, where Aisha was defeated but treated respectfully.

Later, Mu'awiya, a leader from Syria, also challenged Ali. They agreed to let the Quran decide their dispute, but some of Ali's followers thought this was wrong and left him. These people were called the Kharijites, and they caused trouble later on.

Ali was eventually killed by a Kharijite, and leadership passed to his sons Hasan and Husayn. Even some of Ali's early followers saw him as a special, guided leader whose instructions were very important.

Karbala and afterward

The Battle of Karbala

Main article: Battle of Karbala

After Hasan's death, Husayn and his family faced tough times under the rule of Yazid, Mu'awiya's son. In 680, Husayn decided to go to Kufa to help the people there, but he was stopped by Yazid's army in Karbala. The army did not let Husayn's family have food or water, and on the tenth day, they attacked. Husayn and his companions were killed, and the women and children were taken away.

This event became very important for many Shia Muslims, who remember it during a special occasion called Ashura. Some Ismaili groups do not mourn in the same way, believing that the spirit of the leader lives on.

The beginnings of Ismāʿīlī Daʿwah

Main article: Zaidiyyah

After being freed by Yazid, Zaynab, Ali and Fatimah's daughter, shared stories about Karbala with people, starting the first organized efforts to spread Shia beliefs. Later, after the death of Ali ibn Husayn, a new leadership dispute happened. Some followed Zayd ibn ʻAlī, while others followed Muhammad al-Baqir.

Muhammad al-Baqir taught Islam in Medina and had many students. His son, Ja'far al-Sadiq, continued this work and taught many people, including some who later founded important Islamic schools of thought.

After al-Sadiq's death, a split happened. Ismaʻil ibn Jafar, who was thought to be the next leader, seemed to have died before his father, leading to different beliefs about who should lead. This split created different groups within Ismailism.

Ascension of the Dais

Main article: Da'i

Some Ismailis believed that after Isma'il ibn Ja'far, the leadership ended, but most recognized Muhammad ibn Ismaʻil as the next leader. Some thought he was hidden and would return later. With the leaders hidden, the community was guided by special teachers called Da'is, who helped people understand the teachings and connect with the hidden leaders.

The Qarmatians

Main article: Qarmatians

A group called the Qarmatians, mixing Persian pride and old Persian beliefs, became violent. They took over Bahrain and even stole a special stone from Mecca in 930. They changed their religious focus but were defeated by 976 and slowly disappeared.

The Fatimid Caliphate

Main article: Fatimid Caliphate

Rise of the Fatimid Caliphate

Main article: Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah

The Fatimid Caliphate began when Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah became leader in 910 after defeating enemies and establishing a Shia state. This was the only time Shia leaders also served as political rulers after Ali.

The empire was named "Fatimid" after Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter. Some people questioned if they were truly descended from Ali and Fatimah.

The Middle East under Fatimid rule

The Fatimid Caliphate grew quickly, with Egypt as its center. It included parts of North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Syria, and more. Egypt became a important trading center.

The Fatimids had new ideas, like promoting people based on their skills instead of their family background. During this time, the three main branches of Ismailism formed.

One branch, the Druze, began when a leader named al-Hakim was seen by some as a special spiritual figure. Another split happened after the death of al-Mustansir Billah in 1094, dividing the group into Nizari and Musta'li branches.

The Musta'li branch later split again into Taiyabi and Hafizi groups.

Decline of the Caliphate

In the 1040s, a group called the Zirids turned against the Fatimids and joined Sunni Islam, leading to big attacks. By the 1070s, the Fatimids lost most of their lands except Egypt. After the Fatimid government weakened in the 1160s, the city of Egypt was taken over by Saladin, ending the Fatimid Caliphate.

Alamut

Main article: Nizari Ismaili state

Hassan-i Sabbah

Main articles: Hassan-i Sabbah and Alamut Castle

Hassan-i Sabbah was an important leader who helped the Nizari branch of Ismailism survive. He took over a strong fortress called Alamut and made it a base for the Ismaili community.

The Hashasheen / Assassiyoon

Main article: Order of Assassins

To protect themselves, Hassan-i Sabbah and his followers used a strategy of targeting important enemies. They became known for their careful and feared methods.

Threshold of the Imāmate

Main article: Nizar (Fatimid Imam)

After Nizar was imprisoned, his son is believed to have escaped to Alamut. The leadership was kept secret for a while but was later announced by Imam Hassan II, who emphasized the deeper meanings of their beliefs.

Afterward, his descendants led the community from Alamut until it was destroyed.

Destruction by the Mongols

Main article: Mongol campaign against the Nizaris

In 1256, the Mongol leader Hulagu Khan attacked and destroyed Alamut, forcing the leaders and followers to flee.

Aftermath

After the Fatimid Caliphate and their bases in Iran and Syria were destroyed, the three main branches of Ismailism spread out. The Musta'li group moved to India, while the Nizari group stayed in places like Syria, Pakistan, and parts of Africa. The Druze community mainly lives in Syria and Lebanon.

Ismaili historiography

One important book about Ismaili history is called ʿUyun al-Akhbar, written by Idris Imad al-Din. It tells the story of the Ismaili leaders and their work to spread their beliefs. The book is being published in many volumes by scholars working together.

Beliefs

Further information: Seven pillars of Ismailism

Ismailis are a group of people who follow a special kind of Shia Islam. They believe in looking at things in two ways: what you can see on the outside and what is hidden inside. This idea helps them understand their faith better.

View on the Quran

See also: Esoteric interpretation of the Quran

For Ismailis, the Quran is very important. They think that God’s messages came to prophets through special ways. These messages are like light that helps people understand true meanings. The Quran, written in Arabic by the prophet Muhammad, shows these messages in words. But Ismailis also believe there are deeper meanings inside the Quran that need special understanding to see.

The Ginans and Qasidas

Main article: Ginans

Ismailis have special poems called Ginans that help explain the meanings of the Quran. Other Ismaili groups have poems called qasidas that also share important ideas.

Numerology

Main article: Numerology (Ismailism)

Ismailis think numbers have special meanings. They often use the number seven, believing it appears in many parts of life, like the days of the week or the heavens.

Imamate

Main articles: Imamah (Ismaili doctrine) and List of Ismaili imams

Ismailis believe that special leaders, called Imams, help people understand the true meaning of their faith. These leaders guide the community and share deep knowledge.

Pir and Dawah

Main article: Da'i al-Mutlaq

In Ismaili communities, teachers called Dais share important knowledge with their students. In some groups, the main Dai is called a Pir.

Zāhir

Main article: Zahir (Islam)

Ismailis believe that everything has an outer appearance, called zahir.

Bātin

Main article: Batin (Islam)

Ismailis also believe that everything has a hidden inner meaning, called batin, which is known only to special people.

'Aql

Main article: 'Aql

Ismailis believe that understanding God comes from a special light called 'Aql, or Intellect. This light helps everyone, living or not, know God.

Acts of worship

Approach to the traditional five pillars of Islam

Main article: Five pillars of Islam

Ismailis have some unique practices. Nizari Ismaili Muslims are encouraged to say a special prayer called Du'a three times a day. Other forms of prayer are not required, but Ismailis may choose to do them.

Charity, known as Zakat, is important for Ismailis. They also give a portion of their money to support community projects. The amount given can vary depending on what is being donated.

For fasting during Ramadan and other times, Ismailis focus on a deeper, spiritual meaning. They believe fasting also means trying to be a better person by avoiding bad actions and doing good deeds. Some Ismailis also fast on certain Fridays that match the New Moon.

Many Ismaili groups see visiting their spiritual leader, the Imam, as the most meaningful kind of pilgrimage, rather than a trip to Mecca. The Druze follow different traditions and do not visit Mecca, while some other Ismaili groups still visit both.

Additional Isma'ili pillars

Ismailis also follow two extra pillars of worship. The first is taharah, meaning purity. This includes keeping the body, clothes, and prayer space clean so that prayers are accepted.

The second is jihad, which for Ismailis means trying to be a better person and doing what is right.

Walayah

Ismailis also practice walayah, which means love and devotion to God, the Prophets, and their spiritual leaders. Following the guidance of these leaders is very important to them, as they believe it helps people find the right path.

Branches

Nizari

Main article: Nizari

The largest part of the Ismaili community, the Qasim-Shahi Nizari Ismailis, today accept Prince Rahim Aga Khan V as their 50th Imam. The 46th Ismaili Imam, Aga Hassan ʻAlī Shah, fled Iran in the 1840s after being blamed for a failed coup against the Shah of the Qajar dynasty. Aga Hassan ʻAlī Shah settled in Mumbai in 1848.

The Nizari Ismaili Imams have used their power to make changes that affect the personal lives of men and women in the community. Aga Khan III, the 48th Nizari Ismaili Imam, was very passionate about this movement. He came into his role at a young age, and his mother, Lady Ali Shah, played an important role during his early years. The influence of women continued in his later years with his wife Umm Habiba. Imam Aga Khan III ruled from 1885 to 1957, and the 49th Imam, his grandson, Imam Aga Khan IV ruled from 1957 to 2025.

Aga Khan III focused on reforming Ismaili marriage contract laws, which greatly impacted women in the Nizari Ismaili community. He promoted the idea that women were free and independent. In a message to his followers in 1926, he said, "I do not want Ismaili women dependent on anyone—their parents, husbands, or anyone except God..." He encouraged women to take part in social and political affairs and criticized traditions like veiling and gender segregation.

Aga Khan III believed that economic independence was key to achieving equality. By becoming educated and earning their own living, women would no longer depend on their parents or spouses. He urged parents who could only send one child to school to send their daughters. He also set a minimum marriageable age for both boys and girls and banned child marriage. Marriage against the will of the bride was outlawed, and brides were to sign their marriage contracts of their own choice. Other reforms included changes to rules about polygamy and divorce. In 1905, polygamy was allowed only with the condition that the first wife was maintained, and later it was changed to allow it only for specific reasons. In 1962, polygamy was outlawed within the Nizari Ismaili community. Women were allowed to divorce their husbands, and a husband had to stand before a council to get a divorce. Aga Khan III also worked to reduce the stigma around divorce and divorced women.

Muhammad-Shahi Nizari/Mumini

The Muhammad-Shahi or Mumini Nizari Ismailis follow the elder son of Shams al-Din (Nizari) Muhammad d. 1310, the 28th Qasim-Shahi Imam, named ʻAlāʼ ad-Dīn Mumin Shāh d. 1337. They follow this line of Imams until the disappearance of the 40th Imam al-Amir Muhammad al-Baqir in 1796. In 1887, most of this group joined the Qasim-Shahi Nizaris led by Aga Khan III. Today, there are 15,000 followers of this line in Syria.

Musta'ali

Main article: Mustaali

The Mustaali sects are the most traditional of the three main groups of Ismaili, maintaining rituals such as prayer and fasting more consistently with the practices of other Shia sects.

Dawoodi Bohra

Main article: Dawoodi Bohra

The Dawoodi Bohras are a close-knit community who seek advice from Dai on spiritual and temporal matters. They are headed by the Dāʻī al-Mutlaq, who is appointed by his predecessor. The Dāʻī al-Mutlaq appoints others to subsidiary ranks.

Dawoodi Bohras encourage education for both men and women. Many Dawoodi Bohra women choose to work. The community believes in equality and justice for women. They do not require women to cover their faces, and women are allowed to visit mosques and attend religious gatherings.

Sulaymani

Main article: Sulaymani

Founded in 1592, the Sulaymani are mostly found in Yemen, with communities also in Pakistan and India. They are named after their 27th Daʻī, Sulayman bin Hassan.

Alavi Bohra

Main article: Alavi Bohra

The Alavi Bohras follow a different line of succession from the 29th daʼi onwards. They are named after ʻAli Shams al-Din b. Ibrahim. Currently, they are led by the 45th dāʿī al-muṭlaq, Haatim Zakiyuddin.

Hebtiahs Bohra

Main article: Hebtiahs Bohra

The Hebtiahs Bohra broke away from the mainstream Dawoodi Bohra after the death of the 39th Da'i al-Mutlaq in 1754.

Atba-i-Malak

Main article: Atba-i-Malak

The Atba-i Malak community broke away from the mainstream Dawoodi Bohra after the death of the 46th Da'i al-Mutlaq. They have further split into two branches.

Progressive Dawoodi Bohra

The Progressive Dawoodi Bohra is a reformist sect that broke away from mainstream Dawoodi Bohra around 1977.

Druze

Main article: Druze

The Druze faith developed from Ismailism but has unique beliefs and is often considered separate from Islam.

Satpanth

Main articles: Satpanth and Khoja

Satpanth is a subgroup of Nizari Ismailism formed by conversions from Hinduism. They differ from the Nizari Khojas in that they do not follow the Aga Khan as their leader.

Ismailism in Shia Islam

The Shia belief has many branches, and one of them is called Ismailism. The largest branch is called the Twelvers, followed by the Ismailis, then the Zaidis, and the Kaysanite. Each group follows a different line of leaders called Imams, which you can see in the chart below.