Kanem–Bornu Empire

The Kanem–Bornu Empire was an empire based around Lake Chad that once ruled areas which are now part of Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, Libya, Algeria, Sudan, and Chad. It was one of the oldest and longest-lasting empires in the world, especially in African history, and thrived thanks to the busy trans-Saharan trade.

The empire began around the year 700 and was first ruled by the Duguwa dynasty from their capital Njimi in Kanem, using the title mai. In the 11th century, it turned to Islam and came under the Sayfawa dynasty. The empire grew very strong under mai Dunama II Dibalemi in the 1300s, controlling important trade routes and selling salt, ivory, and other goods.

Later, problems with the Bilala people and other issues caused the empire to move its center to the Bornu region. After some unstable times, new leaders like mai Idris IV Alooma brought the empire to its greatest power in the late 1500s. However, starting in the 1600s, the empire slowly weakened because of changes in trade and the environment, as well as conflicts with neighbors.

In the early 1800s, the empire faced big challenges during the Fula jihads, and power shifted to the Sokoto Caliphate. Later, it was taken over by a military leader and then controlled by European countries. Even today, some traditions from the Kanem–Bornu Empire continue in parts of Nigeria.

Nomenclature

The name Kanem–Bornu Empire is a term used by historians to describe the whole history of a state ruled by different groups of leaders. It combines the names of two main areas where the empire was centered: Kanem, in what is now Chad, and Bornu (or Borno), in what is now Nigeria. The empire did not always control both areas at once, and its capital was always in just one of them, so the name is a bit of a mix-up.

Kanem was the original name of the empire’s first main area. The name Bornu or Borno started being used in the 1300s when the center moved west of Lake Chad. Borno is the more correct spelling in the local Kanuri language, but Bornu is often used in history books.

Historians sometimes call this state an empire to show how long it lasted and how important it was. But some suggest calling it a sultanate instead. Old European maps sometimes showed a place called Organa in this area, but modern scholars aren’t sure if that is the same as Kanem–Bornu. Other names for the empire include Sayfawa Empire, named after one of its longest-lasting ruling families, and Kanuri Empire, named after one of the main groups of people there.

History

Medieval period (c. 700–1472)

The early history of the Kanem–Bornu Empire is not well known. It began in the lands around Lake Chad and the Bahr el Ghazal River. Lake Chad was an important spot for trade between places like Egypt, Sudan, West Africa, and the Sahara Desert.

People lived in the Chad Basin as far back as 6000 BCE. By 500 BCE, they knew how to make iron, and by 500 CE, they had camels, which helped trade across the Sahara. The empire started around 700 CE, possibly even earlier. Its first capital was probably Njimi, east of Lake Chad. The rulers were called mai.

The empire grew from the Zaghawa people and included groups like the Toubou. They became wealthy by trading slaves for horses and raiding neighbors.

Modern period (1472–1893)

In about 1472, the city of Ngazagamu was founded. It became an important center for trade and power. The empire grew stronger in the 15th and 16th centuries, fighting nearby groups and trading with faraway places.

Later, the empire faced problems. New states grew powerful, and trade routes changed. Droughts and conflicts weakened the empire. By the 1800s, the rise of new Islamic movements challenged its rule.

Fall of Kanem–Bornu (1893–1902)

In the late 1800s, an adventurer named Rabih az-Zubayr took over the empire. His rule was harsh, and many people suffered. Rabih was eventually defeated by French forces in 1900. After his death, the French and British took control, ending the Kanem–Bornu Empire by 1902.

Legacy and scholarship

Some of the people in the former Kanem–Bornu Empire, especially the Toubou people, resisted colonisation with support from the Ottoman Empire and the Senussi order. By 1920, resistance had mostly stopped, and European colonies were firmly in place. The division of the al-Kanemi dynasty still exists today in the Borno and Dikwa emirates in Nigeria.

European colonisation disrupted the political and economic systems around Lake Chad. Bornu faced political and economic challenges under colonial rule, especially because it was split between different colonial regions like Anglophone Nigeria and Francophone Chad. In the 1950s, new movements arose in Nigeria calling for the restoration of the Kanem–Bornu Empire's territory. These movements grew in the 1970s and led to the creation of Borno State in Nigeria in 1976. In the 1990s, these movements expanded to include more people. Continued challenges in the Bornu region in the early 2000s contributed to the rise of terrorist groups like Boko Haram.

The first European history of the Kanem–Bornu Empire was written by the German traveler Heinrich Barth in 1858. Later writers and colonial officials also created histories of Bornu. These early works often showed the biased views of colonial powers. Because Bornu was not a focus during colonisation and after independence, its history was largely ignored. Serious study of the Kanem–Bornu Empire began in Nigeria in the 1960s and grew in the 1970s. Research continued to grow in Europe and the United States, using new discoveries and local sources.

Government and military

The Kanem–Bornu Empire had rulers known as mais, which means emperor or king. After they started following Islam, they were also called sultans or emirs. Any son of a mai could become the next ruler, which sometimes caused fights over who should lead.

The empire had a special system where land was given out as fiefs. These pieces of land were given by the ruler to people they trusted, like family members or important officials. Some fiefs were very small, like just one village, while others were large districts.

The army of the Kanem–Bornu Empire was strong and used horses, called cavalry, which were brought in from North Africa. They also used special troops on camels for long trips and built forts for safety. The main leader of the army was called a kaigama, and they were very important in helping the ruler protect the empire.

Society

The Kanem–Bornu Empire had strong ties with North Africa, which brought trade, diplomacy, and new ideas to the empire. At its peak, the empire was so safe that it was said a lone woman could walk without fear. Even in later years, the empire remained important to its neighbors. By 1800, much of Hausaland still recognized the empire's authority and sent gifts to its leader, known as the mai.

Over time, the empire became more united under one culture and religion. Islamic law shaped many parts of life, with scholars from faraway places teaching and helping. While most wealthy families followed Islam, ordinary people took longer to adopt it. Farmers grew crops like guinea corn and millet during the rainy season, and also raised other foods like maize and rice.

Women played key roles in diplomacy and supporting armies, sometimes learning foreign languages and helping with supplies. Sadly, like many societies of the time, the Kanem–Bornu Empire relied on slavery. Slaves were obtained through trade, taxes from other lands, and wars. They worked on farms, in homes, and even in the empire's armies.

Economy

Regional and long-distance trade was very important for the Kanem–Bornu Empire. The empire made salt, textiles, and crops and sold them far away across the Sahara Desert. Salt was especially important, with the empire making maybe 6500–9000 tons each year. The empire also sold many people as part of the trade across the Sahara until the late 1800s.

We do not know much about what goods the empire brought in. Traders probably brought books, paper, and clothes, since the empire had Islamic schools and some leaders wore clothes made in Tunis. The empire likely also got horses, copper, and many made items.

The empire used different kinds of money, like copper, coined silver, cowrie shells, and cotton strips. Cowrie shells became official money in 1848. Later, European money like the Spanish dollar and the Maria Theresa thaler were also used. In the early 1800s, leaders asked British workers for machines to make their own money, called the "Bornoan dirham", but this plan stopped when the British said no.