Kingdom of Galicia

The Kingdom of Galicia was a political area in southwestern Europe, covering much of the northwest part of the Iberian Peninsula. It began in the early 10th century after the Kingdom of Asturias was divided following the death of Alfonso III in 910. His son Ordoño II became the ruler of Galicia, which stayed closely connected to the kingdoms of León and Asturias.

Later, Ordoño II brought Galicia into the Kingdom of León. Though Galicia sometimes acted almost independently, it was usually considered part of León. In the 11th century, Compostela became the capital of Galicia. The southern border of Galicia was set when Portugal became independent in 1128. In 1230, when Ferdinand III became king of León, Galicia came under the control of the Crown of Castile.

Galicia often resisted being controlled from far away and supported different rulers at times, including Ferdinand I of Portugal and John of Gaunt. It was finally brought under firm control by the Catholic Monarchs, who set up the Santa Hermandad there. From 1490 to 1715, Galicia was ruled as part of the Crown of Castile, and later as part of Spain until 1834. During this time, a local group called the Junta or Cortes of the Kingdom of Galicia acted as a meeting place for representatives. This group even declared itself independent for a short time when Napoleonic forces were not in control, but it was later dissolved by Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, who was ruling Spain at the time.

Origin and foundation (409)

The Kingdom of Galicia began in the 5th century when the Suebi settled in the old Roman area called Gallaecia. Their leader, Hermeric, made an agreement with the Roman Emperor Honorius, allowing the Suebi to live in lands that are now part of Galicia. They made their capital in a place called Bracara Augusta and started what was known first as the Kingdom of the Suebi and later as the Kingdom of Galicia.

Over time, the differences between the Gallaeci and Suebi people disappeared. This led to the use of names like the Galician Kingdom, King of Galicia, and King of all Galician provinces. Important religious leaders, such as Martin of Braga, were also called Bishop of Galicia.

Suebic Kingdom (409–585)

Main article: Kingdom of the Suebi

The independent Suebic kingdom of Galicia lasted from 409 to 585, staying mostly stable during that time.

In 409, the land was shared between two groups of people, the Vandals and the Suebi. The Suebi settled in areas near modern northern Portugal and western Galicia, in towns like Braga and Porto. They later moved to Lugo and Astorga. In 419, a war started between the Vandals and the Suebi. The Suebi got help from the Romans and forced the Vandals to leave. Without rivals, the Suebi expanded their lands.

In 438, Hermeric, the Suebi king, made peace with the local people. He stepped down because of illness, and his son Rechila took over. Rechila expanded the kingdom south and east, taking over Mérida and Seville. Rechila died in 448, and his son Rechiar became king. Rechiar was the first Germanic king in Europe to become a Christian and the first to make coins. He was defeated and captured in 457.

After Rechiar's death, there were fights over who should be king. By 465, Remismund became the sole king and made friends with the Goths.

The Suebi Kingdom appeared again in history in the late 6th century with the arrival of Saint Martin of Braga, who worked to turn the Suebi to Christianity. Under King Ariamir, the Suebi started becoming Christian. King Theodemar divided the kingdom and made Lugo an important religious center. His son King Miro called a meeting of all the bishops in the kingdom.

The Suebi stayed independent until 585 when Leovigild invaded and defeated them. Audeca, the last Suebi king, was captured after holding out for a year. The Suebi adopted the local Latin language, but left some words and place names in Galicia and Portugal.

Visigothic monarchy (585–711)

In 585, Liuvigild, the king of the Visigoths, took control of the Kingdom of Galicia after defeating its king, Audeca. Galicia became part of the larger Visigothic Kingdom. The Visigoths allowed Galicia to keep many of its traditions and leaders, and the churches in Galicia continued their work.

A famous person from this time was Saint Fructuosus of Braga. He started many important religious communities in hard-to-reach places and wrote rules for them to follow. Later, he became a leader in the church in Galicia.

By the early 700s, the Visigoth rulers faced many problems, including less trade and money. This made life harder for everyone, including in Galicia. In 711, a battle ended Visigoth rule when a new army arrived from across the sea.

Early and High Middle Ages

See also: Reconquest of Galicia

For several centuries after the defeat of the Goths, Galicia was united with other neighboring regions under the same monarchs, with only brief periods of separation under different kings. Along with the rest of the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, it was free of Arab presence from the mid-8th century, being gradually incorporated into a growing Christian state. This is usually called the Kingdom of Asturias in traditional and modern sources, although the precise historical details of these events have been obscured by the national myths leading to the construction of modern Spanish identity.

The 9th century saw this state expand southward, with Castilian and Asturian noblemen acquiring most of the northern Meseta, while in Galicia, a similar impulse led to the conquest and re-population of the regions of Astorga, southern Galicia, and northern Portugal down to Coimbra, by noblemen mostly proceeding from northern Galicia. Also significant was the discovery of the tomb of Saint James the Great at what would become Santiago de Compostela; the shrine constructed there became the religious center of the nation, as well as being the destination of a major international pilgrimage route, the Way of St. James. This increased the political and military relevance of Galicia, and its noble families aspired to positions of power within the kingdom through either military force or by matrimonial alliance with the royal family. To the east, this southern expansion led the capital of the Christian kingdom to be moved to the city of León, from which time the state is usually called the Kingdom of León. This same kingdom was known as either Gallaecia or Galicia (Yillīqiya and Galīsiya) in Al-Andalus Muslim sources up to the 14th century, as well as by European Christian contemporaries.

Society

During the Iron Age, and later during Roman and Germanic rule, Southern Gallaecia—today north Portugal and south Galicia—was the more dynamic, urbanized, and richest area of Gallaecia. This role was assumed by the rural north during the Early and High Middle Ages, as a consequence not only of the Islamic invasion, but as the final result of a continent-wide urban crisis.

The old bishoprics of Braga, Ourense, Tui, Lamego, and others, were either discontinued, or re-established in the north, under the protection of Lugo—which was now a stronghold due to its Roman walls—and Iria Flavia. Dumio was re-established by the Bay of Biscay in Mondoñedo, Lugo assumed the role of Braga, and the bishops of Lamego and Tui sought refuge in Iria, where they received generous territorial grants. During the 9, 10th, and 11th centuries most of these bishoprics were re-established in their historical sees, but at this time the bishops of Lugo, Mondoñedo, and Iria became major political players—not just as religious figures, but also as wealthy, and sometimes mighty, secular powers. In particular, the bishops of Iria and Compostela were notable leaders, due to the multiple fortresses and military resources they controlled as heads of a military Norman mark, as well as due to the wealth that the pilgrimages and royal grants brought to their lands.

Each bishopric was divided into a number of territories or counties, named terras, condados, mandationes, commissos, or territorios in local charters, which in the north were true continuations of the Suebic dioceses which frequently preserved old tribal divisions and denominations, such as Lemabos, Celticos, Postamarcos, Bregantinos, and Cavarcos. Rights to the tax collection and government of each territory was granted by the titular ruler—usually the king—to a count, bishopric, or large monastery, although there existed some singularities. The bishopric of Lugo was divided into counties, each one under the government of an infanzon (a lesser nobleman) as a concession of the bishop, while in the south, large and mighty territories such as the Portucalense became hereditary, passed down to the descendants of the 9th century's conquerors. In the Terra de Santiago (Land of Saint James, the fief of the bishops of Iria-Compostela) each territory was administered by a bishop's vicar, while justice was administered by a council composed of representatives of the local churchmen, knights, and peasants.

Each territory or county could be further divided into mandationes and decanias. The basic territorial division was the villa, centered on a church, and composed of one or more hamlets or villages, together with all its facilities, lands, and possessions. The villas perpetuated ancient Roman and Suevic foundations, and they were the base for the ecclesiastical organization, and for the economic production of the country, later evolving into the modern parroquias and freguesias (rural parishes). The local economy was subsistence, based mainly on the production of grain and beans, and notably in cattle breeding. Other valuable—though geographically restricted—products included fruits, salt, wine, honey, olive oil, horses, iron for the production of weapons and tools, and exotic oriental fabrics introduced from Spania. There were also specialized artisans who worked on demand, such as masons and goldsmiths.

While local commerce was common, long range interchanges—generally maintained by Hebrew merchants—were rare and appreciated. Monetary circulation was scarce, composed mainly of old Suebi and Visigothic coinage known locally as solidos gallicianos. War and pillaging against the thriving Al-Andalus was also an important source for the acquisition of riches, exotic items, and Muslim serfs. Later, pilgrimage of Christians from all over Europe to Santiago de Compostela brought not only riches, but also a range of continental innovations and trends, from shipbuilding, to new architectural styles such as Romanesque art.

The elites were composed of counts, dukes, senatores, and other high noblemen, who were frequently related by marriage with the monarch, and who usually claimed the most powerful positions in society, either as governors, bishops, or as palatine officials or companions of the king or queen. The Galician nobility, however, were also frequently found as rebels, either as supporters of a different candidate to the throne, or aspiring to it themselves, or simply as disobedient to the king's orders and will. At the service of the noblemen were miles (knights) and infanzones; they were often found marching to war with their subalterns on behalf of a patron, or as vicars and administrators.

A sizable section of the society were churchmen—presbyters, deacons, clergymen, lectors, confessos, monks, and nuns—who frequently lived in religious communities, some of which were composed of both men and women living under vows of chastity and poverty. Most of these monasteries were directed by an abbot or abbess, ruled under a pactual tradition heavily influenced by Germanic legal traditions, with a bishop sub regula as the highest authority of the community. Other monasteries used different, sometimes antagonistic rules. The Benedictine and Augustine rules were uncommon until the 11th century. As in most of Europe, the chartulary and chronicle proceedings of monasteries and bishoprics are the most important sources for the study of local history.

By the 12th century the only known bourgeois were the multinational inhabitants of Compostela, by this stage a fortified and strong city. Meanwhile, the City Council of Santiago for centuries had struggled against their bishops for the recognition of a number of liberties. In the country, most people were freemen, peasants, artisans, or infantrymen, who could freely choose a patron, or buy and sell properties, although they frequently fell prey to the greed of the big owners, leading a number of them to a life of servitude. Finally, servos, libertos, and pueros (servants, freedmen, and children), either obtained in war with the Moors or through trial, constituted a visible part of the society; they were employed as household workers (domésticos and scancianes), shepherds, and farmhands. Local charters also show that, in time, they were freed.

In terms of religion, most were Roman Catholics, although the local rites—known today as Mozarabic rites—were notably different from those used in most of Western Europe. No Arian, Priscillianist, or Pagan organizations are known to have survived during the High Middle Ages. However, there were still pagans and pagan shrines in the Bierzo region during the 7th century, whilst Arian or Priscillianist tonsure—seen as long hair, with only a partial tonsure atop the head—was in use in Galicia up to 681, when it was forbidden at a council in Toledo. There were no known Muslim communities in Galicia and northern Portugal, other than Moor serfs. Records of Hebrew people are also uncommon in local charters until the 12th century, except as travelers and merchants.

Personal names in Galicia and northern Portugal were chiefly of Germanic origin, although Christian, Roman, and Greek names were also common. Names were usually composed just of a single surname, although noblemen frequently also used a patronymic. Muslim names and patronymics were rare amongst Galicians, as even serfs were frequently given a Germanic or Roman name, which is in contrast with the relative popularity of Muslim names amongst the Leonese.

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  Romanesque façade in the Cathedral of Ourense (1160); founded in the 6th century, its construction is attributed to King Chararic

Monastical church of San Miguel de Eiré, [Pantón](/wiki/Pantón) (12th century)

Oratory of San Miguel de [Celanova](/wiki/Celanova) (first quarter of the 10th century)

_Pórtico da Gloria_, [Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela](/wiki/Cathedral_of_Santiago_de_Compostela) (12th–13th centuries), summum of the local [Romanesque sculpture](/wiki/Romanesque_sculpture)

Interludes of independence: 10th and 11th centuries

When Alfonso III of León was forced by his sons to abdicate in 910, his lands were partitioned, bringing about the first episode of a short-lived distinct kingdom of Galicia. García I obtained the Terra de Fora or León, consisting of the southeastern portion of their father's realm, while Ordoño II held the western lands, i.e., Galicia (including the recently acquired lands of Coimbra) where he had already been serving as governor, and was now recognized as king in an assembly of magnates held in Lugo. The youngest brother, Fruela II, received the Asturian heartland in the northeast, with Oviedo as its capital.

From Galicia, Ordoño launched several successful raids on the Islamic south, returning with riches and Muslim serfs, and confirming himself as an able commander. At the death of García in 914, Ordoño also acquired León, and on his death in 924 his younger brother, Fruela, reunited Alfonso's realm. Fruela's death a year later initiated a period of chaos, with several claimants to the crown. Fruela's son, Alfonso Fróilaz, received support from Asturias, but was captured and blinded by Sancho, Alfonso IV, and Ramiro II, sons of Ordoño, with the aid of the Basque troops of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona. Vague and conflicting historical records make it uncertain whether Alfonso Fróilaz reigned briefly as king of the entire kingdom, or simply held a remote part of Asturias. In Galicia, Sancho succeeded, being crowned in Santiago de Compostela and marrying a Galician noblewoman. After reigning for just three years he died childless. Alfonso IV then took control of an again-reunited Kingdom of León in 929; however, he was forced into a monastery by their youngest brother, Ramiro, two years later.

Ramiro II had ties with the Galician nobility through kinship, marriage and patronage, and he and his son, Ordoño III, whose mother was Galician, reigned with their support. This was not the case when Ordoño was succeeded by his half-brother Sancho I of León in 956. Sancho proved unpopular and ineffectual and the Galician nobles grew fractious, forming a coalition with Fernán González of Castile to overthrow Sancho in favor of Ordoño IV, who was enthroned in Santiago de Compostela in 958. However, Sancho reclaimed the crown in 960 with support from his mother's Kingdom of Pamplona, the Leonese nobility, and Muslim assistance. His son, Ramiro III, grew increasingly absolutist, alienating the Galician nobility who also resented the lack of Leonese help when the Normans raided Galicia from 968 through 970.

The Galician nobility again rose in rebellion, in 982 crowning and anointing Bermudo, son of Ordoño III, as king in Santiago de Compostela. With their support, he first repelled the army of Ramiro in the battle of Portela de Areas and eventually made himself undisputed ruler of the Leonese kingdom. Once in control, Bermudo lost a number of his Galician and Portuguese supporters by repudiating his Galician wife in favor of a new marriage alliance with Castile. His later reign was marked by the ascension of a strong military leader, Almanzor, who led a brief resurgence of the Cordoban Caliphate, reconquering Coimbra or Viseu, and even raiding Santiago de Compostela.

In the 1030s, Galicia became the sole holdout to the Leonese conquests of Sancho III of Pamplona. When the Count of Castile—nominally a Leonese vassal, but de facto independent—was assassinated in León in 1029, Sancho claimed the right to name the successor, giving it to his own son Ferdinand. Taking advantage of the youth of Leonese king Bermudo III, Sancho seized disputed border regions, formalizing the arrangement by including the lands in the dowry of Bermudo's sister, who was married to Ferdinand in 1032. Two years later, in 1034, Sancho took Bermudo's capital, becoming de facto ruler of most of the kingdom, whilst leaving Bermudo to rule from his refuge in Galicia. Sancho's death the next year allowed Bermudo to regain not only the entire kingdom, but to briefly become overlord of Ferdinand's Castile. However, in 1037, the Castilian count killed Bermudo in battle, and Galicia passed with the Kingdom of León into the hands of Ferdinand, who then had himself crowned king.

Ferdinand's death in 1065 led to another short-lived Galician state. In 1063 he had opted to partition his realm, giving the eastern Kingdom of Castile to his eldest son, Sancho II, along with the right to the paria (tribute) from the Taifa of Zaragoza. His second son Alfonso VI was given the Kingdom of León, representing the central portion of the old realm, with the paria from Toledo. His youngest son, García II, who had been educated in Galicia under the tutelage of bishop Cresconius of Compostela, received the western half of Bermudo's old kingdom as King of Galicia, along with the right to parias from the Taifas of Badajoz and Seville.

As king, Garcia aimed to restore the old episcopal sees of Tui, Lamego, and Braga, which had been dissolved due to Arab and Viking assaults. The death of two of his most notable supporters, bishops Cresconius of Compostela and Uistrarius of Lugo, left the young king in a weaker position, and in 1071 the Count of Portugal, Nuno Mendes, rose in rebellion. García defeated and killed him in the same year at the Battle of Pedroso, and in recognition of his solidified control adopted the title King of Galicia and Portugal. However, his brothers, Alfonso and Sancho, immediately turned on the victor, forcing García to flee, first to central Portugal and later—after defeating him near Santarém—into exile in Seville in 1072. García's realm was divided, with Alfonso joining the county of Portugal to his Kingdom of León, while Sancho held the north.

This situation was inherently unstable, with Sancho's lands separated by Alfonso's León, and the two soon fought a war in which Sancho proved victorious, forcing Alfonso into exile and reuniting all of Ferdinand's kingdom except the autonomous city of Zamora, held by his sister Urraca. While besieging this town in 1072, Sancho was assassinated, inducing Alfonso to return and claim the entire realm. García also returned in 1073 from his exile, either with the hope of re-establishing himself in Galicia, or simply having been misled by promises of safety from Alfonso, however, he was imprisoned by Alfonso for the rest of his life, dying in 1091. As an aftermath to these events, before 1088 Alfonso deposed the bishop of Compostela, Diego Peláez, who was charged "on trying to deliver the Kingdom of Galicia "Galleciae Regnum" to the king of the English and of the Normans William the Conqueror, while taking it away from the kings of the Spaniards". This reunion with the Kingdom of León would prove permanent, although both kingdoms maintained their separate personality.

Raymond of Burgundy

In 1091 the daughter of King Alfonso VI, infanta Urraca, married a Burgundian nobleman, Raymond of Burgundy, who had participated in the Crusades against the Almoravids. His military victories as well as his Anscarid lineage justified this union, and Alfonso bestowed on him the government of Galicia between Cape Ortegal and Coimbra, as a personal fief. This union gave rise to the House of Burgundy, which would rule in Galicia, León, and Castile until the death of King Peter.

Two years after Raymond's marriage, in 1093, another French crusader, his cousin Henry, the grandson of Duke Robert I of Burgundy and nephew of Alfonso's queen, was given the hand of the Alfonso's illegitimate daughter Theresa, receiving lands in Castille. Both Burgundians were close allies in the affairs of the realm, ratifying a pact of friendship where Raymond promised his cousin the Kingdom of Toledo or the Kingdom of Galicia, together with a third of his treasure, in return for Henry's aid in acquiring the crown as successor of King Alfonso. However, by 1097 King Alfonso granted Henry the counties of Portugal and Coimbra, from the river Minho to the Tagus, thus limiting the powers of Raymond, who by this time was securing an important nucleus of partisans in Galicia, including Count Pedro Fróilaz de Traba, whilst appointing his own notary, Diego Gelmírez, as bishop of Compostela. In successive years he also obtained the government of Zamora, Salamanca, and Ávila, but he died in 1107, two years before King Alfonso, who was now in his seventies. The government of Galicia and their other possessions was retained by Alfonso's widow, Urraca, who styled herself Mistress and Empress of Galicia. King Alfonso, in a council held in León, asked the magnates of Galicia to swear an oath on the defense of the rights of his grandson, Alfonso Raimúndez, to the kingdom of Galicia, in case his mother Urraca remarried.

On June 30, 1109, King Alfonso VI died. He was succeeded by Queen Urraca, who was remarried in 1109 to the king of Aragon, Alfonso the Battler, a soldier by nature who was immediately received as king in Castille and León, but not in Galicia. As part of the marriage settlement, any children born to the union were to have priority over Raymond's son Alfonso in the succession. In Galicia this union was rejected by the old party of count Raymond, now led by count Pedro Fróilaz, tutor of young Alfonso, although the partisans of Urraca also joined forces. With Leon and Castille quiet and under control, Alfonso moved on Galicia in 1110, and while he did not suffer any major defeat, he had little success, returning three months later to León. Probably as a consequence of this development, Pedro Froila drew Diego Gelmirez to his party. In 1111, the young Alfonso Raimúndez was crowned and anointed king in Compostela.

Separation of the County of Portugal (1128)

On the death of Henry in 1112, his widow Theresa succeeded him as head of the two Counties of Portugal and Coimbra, during the minority of her son, Afonso Henriques. Two trends emerged at this time, firstly a policy of rapprochement with the new King Alfonso VII, and secondly the maintenance of their power with the aim that the heir to the county would be proclaimed king. The increasing importance of Santiago de Compostela—now metropolitan church of Lusitania, which was in open competition with Braga, metropolitan church of Galicia—and the support for Theresa's rule north of the Minho brought about by her romantic union with Fernando Pérez de Traba altered the status quo. The Archbishop of Braga, who had suffered the nocturnal theft of several relics, including the body of Saint Fructuosus of Braga, by Diego Gelmírez in 1102, and the major Portuguese aristocrats who were pursuing a larger territorial authority, gave support to the royal pretensions of Afonso Henriques. Given this situation, King Alfonso VII marched on Portugal, taking first Tui and other territories north of the river Minho, later besieging Guimarães and obtaining the submission of the Portuguese.

Several months later, in 1128, inspired by the shortcomings of Afonso Henriques, the Galician and Portuguese troops of Theresa and Fernando Perez de Trava entered Portugal, but the men of Afonso scored a decisive victory at the Battle of São Mamede. The later death of Theresa, and Afonso's success against the Moors at the Battle of Ourique, led to him being proclaimed King of the Portuguese in 1139, this independence being recognized at the Treaty of Zamora in 1143. Still, the status of frontier lands such as Toroño and Limia in southern Galicia led to frequent border conflicts during most of the Lower Middle Ages.

Compostelan era (1111–1230)

At Santiago de Compostela on September 17, 1111 the Galician high nobility crowned Alfonso VII, the son of Raymond and Urraca, as king of Galicia, and he was anointed by bishop Diego Gelmírez; the coronation was led by Pedro Fróilaz de Traba, who had been Alfonso's mentor throughout his childhood. The coronation was intended to preserve the rights of the son of Raymond of Burgundy in Galicia, at a time when Urraca effectively delivered the kingdoms of Castile and León to her new husband, Alfonso the Battler of Aragon and Navarre.

The ceremony in Compostela was more symbolic than effective, and Diego Gelmírez, Pedro Fróilaz, and other Galician nobles headed first to Lugo, and later to the royal seat in León to enthrone Alfonso VII there. However, they were intercepted at Viadangos, near León, by the troops of Alfonso the Battler. The Galician knights charged, but they were outnumbered and surrounded by the Aragonese infantry, who defeated the Galicians and frustrated their plans. Pedro Fróilaz was taken prisoner, whilst other nobles were killed, but bishop Gelmírez managed to escape, delivering his protégé, the young king, to his mother, who began acting against her new husband. From then until Alfonso VII came of age and Urraca died, the entire realm lived under a constant state of civil war, experiencing frequent seizures and shifting alliances between mother and child, and between Urraca and her Aragonese husband. This same civil war was evident in the kingdom of Galicia, where partisans of Diego Gelmirez, of Pedro Fróilaz, and of other nobles and warlords, found themselves battling each other as defenders of either Queen Urraca or King Alfonso VII, or under their own agenda, whilst Alfonso of Aragón and Theresa of Portugal also had their own supporters. With Calixtus II, uncle of Alfonso VII, becoming Pope, Diego Gelmírez secured the elevation of Compostela into an archdiocese in 1120 through a steady flow of generous donations sent to Rome. Bishop Diego attempted to gain recognition for Compostela by becoming primate of Spain, but lost the title to Toledo, the old Visigoth capital. Later, however, he sought to have Compostela recognized as the metropolitan church of the Kingdom of Galicia, in opposition to the church of Braga, which had been the metropolitan since at least the days of Martin of Dumio. Calixtus II did not grant Gelmirez's claims, but finally decided to enlarge Compostela's jurisdiction in an anomalous fashion: instead of Galicia, Compostela was granted control over the old jurisdiction of Mérida, the former metropolitan church of Lusitania, which was then under Muslim control without a bishop. Consequently, the bishops of Coimbra, Lamego, Viseu, or Salamanca, among others, were subjected to the rule of Compostela. Braga, metropolitan of the cities of Galicia other than Compostela, found itself limited by the jurisdiction of the latter, and became the centre of the movement for the independence of Portugal. In 1128 the leader of the Galician nobility, Fernando Peres de Trava, together with his lover Countess Theresa of Portugal, who were acting with absolute liberty in most of Galicia and Portugal, were defeated by Afonso Henriques, Theresa's son. This was the foundation of the future kingdom of Portugal. On his death in 1156, Alfonso VII divided his domains under pressure from the Castilian and Galician nobles, bequeathing León and Galicia to his second son, Ferdinand II. Ferdinand, who had been using the title of King of Galicia at least since 1152, had been as a child ward of the influential Count Fernando Peres de Trava, heir and son of Count Pedro Fróilaz, who in turn had been tutor of Alfonso VII. In 1158 the death of his brother Sancho III of Castile permitted him to intervene the Castilian internal affairs, which led him to use the title Rex Hispaniarum. In his own realm, he continued his father's policies by granting Cartas Póvoa or Foros (constitutional charters) to towns such as Padrón, Ribadavia, Noia, Pontevedra and Ribadeo, most of them possessing important harbors or sited in rich valleys. Thus he promoted the growth of the bourgeoisie and improved the local economy through the expansion of commerce. He also contributed to the economic and artistic development of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, at least after the death of bishop Martin in 1168, and under the rule of two of his closest subjects, bishops Pedro Gudestéiz and Pedro Suárez de Deza. Ferdinand died in 1188, in Benavente, leaving two main claimants to the throne: his sons Sancho, born of a Castilian noblewoman, and Alfonso, from Ferdinand's first marriage, to Urraca of Portugal. Alfonso, supported by the Galician nobility and by the archbishop of Compostela Pedro Suárez de Deza, hastened to Santiago de Compostela carrying the remains of his father and proclaiming himself King there. Unlike his father, he dropped the title of "King of the Spains", preferring the use of "King of León" and "King of León and Galicia". Alfonso IX's long reign was characterized by his rivalry with Castile and Portugal, and by the promotion of the royal power at the expense of the church and nobility, whilst maintaining his father's urban development policies. He was one of the first European monarchs to call for a general council, summoning not only the nobility and the Church, but also the inhabitants of the towns and cities, presaging modern representative parliaments. The last years of his reign were also marked by the conquest of large areas of what is now Extremadura (including the cities of Cáceres, Mérida and Badajoz) then in the hands of the Almohad Caliphate, a territory also wanted by the Portuguese.

Alfonso granted constitutional charters to the towns of Betanzos, A Coruña, Baiona, Salvaterra de Miño, Verín, Monforte de Lemos, O Valadouro, Milmanda, Bo Burgo de Castro Caldelas, Melide, Sarria and Triacastela, sited in good harbors along the Galician coastline, by the Miño river, or at major crossroads in the country. These new reguengo villages (royal villages under direct royal political and economical control, and administered by their autonomous city councils), each one usually known as a burgo due to its walled circuits, attracted peasants, who could find better living conditions under the direct protection of the king than abroad under the authority of a bishop, a monastery or a nobleman; they also attracted foreigners, most notably artisans and merchants, who brought new trends and knowledge. These burgs effected a revolution in the social structure of the time, leading to economic diversification, removing the dominant autarky of the previous centuries, and facilitating the development of fishing and pre-industrial mass production of some resources, especially salted and dried fish, fish oil, and wine, marketed through the seaports to England and the Mediterranean.

In these cities and villages the emergence of an associative movement led to the creation of permanent city councils, and the organization of artisan guilds or confrarías, which would in time acquire a religious hue just to avoid being banned or punished in their patrimonies. These new burgs also allowed a number of minor noble houses to consolidate power by occupying the new administrative and political offices, in open competition with the new classes: mayors, aldermen (regedores, alcaldes, justiças), agents and other officials (procuradores, notarios, avogados) and judges (juizes) of the town council; or mordomos and vigarios (leader and deputies) of the diverse guilds.

Throughout this century there was also a rapid growth of the rural population, resulting in a larger force of farm labor which consequently allowed the great monasteries to develop new agricultural lands. This, coupled with the improvement of farming equipment and techniques, such as the introduction of the heavy wheeled plough, resulted in an increase in productivity that impacted the people's lifestyles. The distribution of this increased productivity between peasants and lords was regulated by the establishment of foros or lifelong contracts, frequently spanning several generations or vozes. The economic and social transformations led to profound changes in mindset. In the towns, it initiated a religious and intellectual renewal under the mendicant orders, most notably the Franciscans, who instituted social reforms.

Compostela, "capital and looking glass" of the Kingdom of Galicia, became a showcase of this thriving era, reflected in Master Matthew's work in the granite of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela—especially in the Portico da Gloria and in Prateria's façade—demonstrating a prosperity also witnessed through the surviving Romanesque buildings in Galicia. This period is also responsible for Latin literary creations such as the Codex Calixtinus and the Historia Compostellana. The Historia is an extensive chronicle of the deeds of the bishop of Compostela, Diego Gelmírez, and, though partisan, it is a source of great significance for the understanding of contemporary events and Galician society in the first half of the 12th century.

Union under the Crown of Castile (1230)

In the early Medieval era, a fluid pattern of union and division was observed among the states of Christian Iberia. While marriage of royals had resulted in the union of some of these states—for example between Navarre and Aragon, and Castile and León—subsequent divisions amongst heirs created a dynamic pattern of union and separation. However, the 12th century initiated a series of unions that would prove permanent.

Alfonso IX married twice. From his first marriage to Teresa of Portugal he had a son, Ferdinand, and two daughters, Sancha and Aldonza. From his second marriage to Berengaria of Castile, he had five children: Eleanor, who died as a child, a second Ferdinand, Alfonso, Berengaria, and Constance. The death of Alfonso IX's son from his first marriage, Ferdinand, in 1214 left the younger Ferdinand, from his second marriage, as heir to his father. When the Castilian king, Henry I, died in 1217 and Berengaria ceded her rights to her son, Ferdinand became King of Castile, against the will of his father.

To preserve the independence of his realm, Alfonso IX applied Galician-Leonese inheritance customs to nominate Aldonza as future queen of Galicia and Sancha as queen of León, enlisting their uncle Afonso II of Portugal to support their succession. Alfonso died in 1230 in Sarria, while on pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela to thank the apostle for his help in the conquest of Extremadura, and his body was taken there for burial. Most of the Leonese nobility cleaved to Ferdinand, who also gained the support of the new Portuguese king, Sancho II. After clashes in León and Galicia, Alfonso IX's two former wives, Berengaria and Theresa, reached an agreement whereby Theresa induced Aldonza and Sancha to abandon their regal claims in exchange for an annuity. As a result, Ferdinand III became successor to Alfonso's kingdoms of León and Galicia, bringing about a permanent union into what would come to be called the Crown of Castile, wherein the kingdoms continued as administrative entities under the unified rule of a single monarch.

• Royal pantheon of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela

Sepulcher of count Pedro Fróilaz de Traba (_Orbem Galletie Imperante_), protector of king [Alfonso VII](/wiki/Alfonso_VII) (d. 1128)

Sepulcher of king [Ferdinand II](/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_León) (_Rex in Legione et Gallecia_) (d. 1187)

Sepulcher of [Ferdinand of Galicia and León](/wiki/Ferdinand_of_León_\(died_1214\)). Son and heir of the king Afonso VIII (known as alfonso ix in the Spanish bibliography) (d. 1214)

Sepulcher of the queen [Berengaria of Barcelona](/wiki/Berengaria_of_Barcelona) wife of Afonso VII (d. 1149)

• .jpg)

  Sepulcher of king Afonso VIII of León and Galicia (known as Afonso IX in the Spanish bibliography) (Rex Legionis et Gallecie) (d. 1230)

• .jpg)

  Sepulcher of queen Joana de Castro of Castilla, León, Toledo and Galicia (d. 1374)

Return only the adapted Markdown section. No explanation, no preamble.

Late Middle Ages

Emergence of the Galician language

Main articles: Galician Language and Galician-Portuguese

The Galician language began to develop in the 12th century. Before that, local Latin writing was influenced by the local spoken language. By the 12th century, we see full sentences in Galician within Latin texts, and it started being used in literature by the late 1200s.

From the 13th to the 15th centuries, this language was known as Galician-Portuguese. It was used widely in culture and developed a rich tradition of songs, with around 2000 songs preserved. These songs included love songs, songs where women spoke about their boyfriends, songs that made fun of others, and religious songs.

Kings like Dom Dinis in Portugal and Alfonso X the Wise in Galicia supported this language. Noble houses also encouraged it, making authors of literature more respected. There were also books translated into Galician, like stories about King Arthur and the Trojan War.

Galician was commonly used in legal documents from 1230 to 1530. However, by the 1500s, the use of Castilian Spanish grew, and Galician faced discrimination. Despite this, Galician literature saw a revival in the 19th century.

Galicia and the Castilian Crown

The influence of Galicia in the kingdom's politics began to decline under Ferdinand III. The local nobility and city councils lost power to bishops, and Galicia became more controlled from cities like Toledo or Seville. The royal court moved away from Compostela, and the kingdom was ruled more by Castilians.

Ferdinand III introduced high officials called meyrino maor in Galicia, later replaced by adelantado mayor. These officials were either local nobles or members of the royal family, helping maintain communication between the Crown and Galicia.

Alfonso X continued centralization policies. He placed representatives in local governments and replaced Galician bishops and nobles with Castilians. Despite this, Galicia kept its own legal code and parliament. Public documents in Galicia were written in Galician, while royal court documents used Castilian.

John, king of León, Galicia and Seville (1296–1301

Alfonso X's reign ended in civil war. His son Ferdinand de la Cerda died, leading his brother Sancho to rebel for the throne. After Sancho's death, his son Ferdinand IV faced challenges from his uncle John, who claimed the throne with support from Portugal and Aragon.

John was proclaimed king of León, Galicia, and Seville in 1296. However, he lost support and was forced to give up his claim in 1301 for minor titles, confirming the unity of the Crown of Castile.

Unrest in the cities

After John's challenge, Ferdinand sent his brother Don Felipe to Galicia as Adelantado Mayor. The 14th century saw unrest in cities like Lugo, Tui, Ourense, and Compostela. City councils wanted to become reguengas, or autonomous under the king's direct control, conflicting with bishops who wanted to keep their power.

In Compostela, tensions peaked in 1320 when the archbishop killed the city council members. Later, in 1348, the Black Death reached Galicia, causing a major crisis.

Civil War of the Castilian Crown (1366–1369

A succession crisis occurred in Castile between King Peter I and his half-brother Henry Count of Trastámara, part of the larger Hundred Years' War. Peter tried to increase royal power, angering nobles. Henry, supported by Aragon and mercenaries, fought against Peter, who had support from municipalities and some nobles like the Galician Castro family.

Peter fled to Galicia in 1366 and sought English support. Henry gained support in Galicia, but Peter won a battle in 1367. However, French support for Henry changed the situation. Peter was captured and killed in 1369, leaving Henry in control.

Ferdinand I of Portugal king in Galicia

After Henry II took power, many Galician nobles resented the high nobility's triumph. Under Fernando de Castro, Galician nobles invited Ferdinand I of Portugal to be their king. Ferdinand entered Galicia and was welcomed in cities like Tui and A Coruña.

Ferdinand worked to restore strongholds and improve trade with Portugal. However, Henry II of Castile attacked, forcing Ferdinand back to Portugal. In 1371, Galician nobles were defeated, and Castilian rule was re-established by 1373.

John of Gaunt

Ferdinand's expulsion led to Tui being captured by Diego Sarmento for Henry II. Coruña stayed loyal to Portugal until 1373. João Fernandes de Andeiro sought English support, leading to John of Gaunt claiming the Castilian Crown for his wife Constance, daughter of Peter I.

John landed in Coruña in 1386 with English troops and took control of several cities without fighting. However, plague killed many of his troops, and he failed to advance further. He negotiated peace in 1388, giving up claims to Castile for compensation and a marriage alliance.

The 15th century

After loyalist defeats, foreign noble houses were given important lands in Galicia. The kingdom became divided into rival fiefdoms with little political influence. Constant wars and banditry created insecurity.

Galicia lost its vote in the Parliament during the late 14th or early 15th century. The cities rebelled against taxes from 1430 to 1460, citing poor law enforcement and lack of representation.

Irmandinos Wars

Main article: Irmandiño

Brotherhoods formed to maintain peace during the 15th century. In 1418, a brotherhood in Compostela overthrew the city council. Another, called Fusquenlla, fought the House of Andrade. Battles occurred, and in 1458, a brotherhood imprisoned the archbishop of Santiago.

From 1465 to 1467, brotherhoods organized across Galicia to defend against nobles. In 1467, nobles surrendered their strongholds to the Brotherhood. However, by 1469-1470, exiled nobles returned and defeated the Brotherhood, leading to reconstructions of strongholds and continued conflict.

Catholic monarchs

A civil war broke out in 1474 after Henry IV's death between his daughter Joanna and half-sister Isabella. In Galicia, Archbishop Fonseca supported Isabella, while Pedro Álvarez de Soutomaior supported Joanna.

In 1476, Fonseca attacked Pontevedra but failed. By 1480, peace recognized Isabella and Fernando as monarchs. The Catholic Monarchs sent the Santa Hermandad to Galicia to pacify the region, which faced criticism for its costs and harsh methods.

The establishment of the Real Audiencia in 1500 marked Galicia's integration into the Crown of Castile.

Modern age

The Junta, also known as the General Assembly, was the main meeting place for leaders in the Kingdom of Galicia from the 15th century until 1834. It started as a group where nobles, church leaders, and common people met, but later it was mostly controlled by city leaders and lesser nobles.

During the time of King Philip II, Galicia faced many challenges. Wars and strict rules from leaders caused trouble for the people and the economy. Trade suffered, and some cities were attacked. Life was hard for many, especially in places like Ferrol and A Coruña.

Later, during the 17th and 18th centuries, more wars and changes in leadership continued to affect Galicia. Leaders tried to get more say in important decisions, and there were efforts to improve the kingdom during a time called the Enlightenment. Writers and leaders worked to highlight problems and suggest changes to help the people and economy of Galicia.

Culture

Because of stories and myths about Galicia's past, especially from when it was a kingdom, people sometimes call it "Terra Meiga" (land of the witches) or "Reino Meiga" (kingdom of the witches).

Symbols of the kingdom

The purple lion

After the middle of the 12th century, soldiers in Europe started painting symbols on their shields. This helped them tell friends from enemies because helmets covered their faces. These symbols were also very beautiful and important in wars.

One of the first kings in Europe to use a special symbol was Alphonse VII of León. He used a purple lion, which stood for strength and power. His son Ferdinand II and later Alphonse IX helped make this symbol famous.

The Chalice, symbol of the kingdom

As time went on, people made lists of symbols used by different kingdoms. Galicia didn’t have its own special symbol, so artists used a symbol based on the sound of the word “Galicia.” In English, it sounded like “Calice,” which means “chalice.” This idea started in a book from 1282.

Later, the chalice became very popular in Galicia because of its connection to the Holy Grail, a famous symbol in European stories. Today, the chalice is the main symbol of Galicia, while the purple lion is linked to León.

Medieval cartography

Old maps from the Middle Ages showed the Kingdom of Galicia in different ways. For example, a map from the year 1086 called Burgo de Osma’s map used the name Gallecia for the whole northwest part of the Iberian Peninsula.

Other important maps like Liber Floridus from 1125, Tabula Rogeriana from 1154, and Imago Mundi from 1190 also included names for Galicia, showing how people back then saw this area of the world.