Serfdom

Serfdom was a way of life for many peasants in old Europe. It started in late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages and lasted until the mid-19th century in some places. People in serfdom, called serfs, were tied to the land they lived on and worked for the lord who owned that land. Unlike slaves, serfs could not be bought or sold on their own, but sometimes they were sold with the land.

Serfs had to work hard on the lord's fields, in mines, forests, and even on roads. In return, they got protection, some justice, and the right to farm small pieces of land for their own food. The lord and the serfs were bound together by rules and duties.

Serfdom ended at different times in different places. In Western Europe, it weakened after a big disease called the Black Death killed many people in 1347. But in Central and Eastern Europe, serfdom actually got stronger. It lasted until the mid-19th century in Russia, where changes were made to limit what landowners could do. Other places like Prussia, the Habsburg monarchy, and Finland also ended serfdom at various times. Today, the United Nations says serfdom is wrong and similar to slavery.

History

Main article: History of serfdom

See also: Feudalism § History

Serfdom was a way of life for many people a long time ago. It started in very old times, like in ancient Greece, where people called helots lived in a way similar to serfs. Later, during the time of the Roman Empire, big landowners used tenant farmers instead of slaves because they needed more workers.

As time went on, these tenant farmers found it hard to leave their land because of taxes. Serfdom really took shape after the Carolingian Empire broke up around the 10th century. Strong lords wanted people to work on their farms, so they kept them there by law and money. This system lasted through the Middle Ages and provided most of the farm work.

Serfdom started to end in parts of Europe, but it continued in eastern Europe until the 19th century. Some places stopped it during the Napoleonic invasions, while others ended it a bit later.

Etymology

The word serf comes from the Middle French word serf and the Latin word servus, which means slave or servant. In the past, people who were now called serfs were often called coloni in Latin. As slavery ended and the legal status of these people became similar to that of coloni, the word serf took on its modern meaning. The word serf was first used in English in the late 15th century and the term serfdom was created in 1850.

Dependency and the lower orders

Serfs had a special role in the way people lived and worked during the time of feudalism. They lived and worked on land owned by a lord, who protected them in return. This system meant everyone had a job to do: serfs worked the land, knights fought to keep everyone safe, and church leaders prayed for the community.

Serfs were different from slaves because they could not be bought or sold on their own, but if the land they worked on was sold, they went with it. They could not leave their land without permission. Sometimes, people became serfs because they had no other choice, like after a bad harvest or during a war. They would agree to work for a lord in exchange for protection and a place to live.

Serfs had some rights, even though they were not free. They could keep some of what they grew and sell extra at markets. Their children were also expected to become serfs. Different groups of workers existed, like freemen who had more freedom, and villeins who had some rights but were still tied to the land they worked. Some serfs could even buy their freedom or earn it by serving well in battles.

Serfdom by country and location

Americas

Aztec Empire

In the Aztec Empire, the Tlacotin class had ways of living that were similar to serfdom. Slaves were only a small part of the population, making up just 2%.

Byzantine Empire

See also: Slavery in the Byzantine Empire

The paroikoi in the Byzantine Empire were like serfs.

France

See also: Slavery in France

Serfdom in France began to end after the Black Death in France. This happened because there were fewer workers, so freeing people became more common. By the 1700s, serfdom was rare in most of France.

In 1779, reforms by Jacques Necker ended serfdom on lands owned by the king. When the French Revolution began in 1789, there were still many serfs in some areas. Serfdom was fully ended in France on 4 August 1789, and rules that let landlords control peasants were also removed soon after.

Habsburg monarchy

See also: Slavery in Bohemia and Slavery in Hungary

In the Habsburg monarchy, Emperor Joseph II issued a law in 1781 that ended serfdom in some areas. In Hungary, a similar law came in 1785. These laws gave serfs more freedom to choose their partners and jobs, but they still had to work for their landlords without pay. This fully ended during the revolutions of 1848.

Ireland

See also: Slavery in Ireland

Gaelic Ireland

In Gaelic Ireland, there were people called bothach, fuidir, and sencléithe who had little freedom and were like serfs. They could not leave their lands without permission and had few rights.

Poland

Serfdom became common in Poland in the 1600s and lasted until the late 1700s and early 1800s. Steps to end it were taken in 1791, but changes were slowed by events that split Poland. Over time, serfdom was ended as the area grew more industrial.

Russia

Serfdom became common in Russia in the 1600s. It was mostly found in central and southern parts of the country. In 1861, Alexander II freed Russia’s serfs by law. The people who owned them were paid through taxes. Other serfs were freed in 1866.

Emancipation dates by country

Catalonia: 21 April 1486 Scotland: neyfs (serfs) disappeared by the late 14th century, except in the salt and coal mining industries, where a form of serfdom survived until the Colliers (Scotland) Act 1799. England and Wales: obsolete by 15th–16th century. Wallachia: 5 August 1746 (land reforms in 1864) Moldavia: 6 August 1749 (land reforms in 1864) Piedmont-Sardinia: 19 December 1771 Austria: 1 November 1781 (first step; second step: 1848) Bohemia: 1 November 1781 (first step; second step: 1848) Baden: 23 July 1783 Hungary: 22 August 1785 (first step; second step: 1848) Denmark: 20 June 1788 (part of Denmark–Norway) France: 4 August 1789 Helvetic Republic: 4 May 1798 Batavian Republic (Netherlands): constitution of 12 June 1798 (in theory; in practice with the introduction of the French Code Napoléon in 1811) Serbia: 1804 (de facto, de jure in 1830) Schleswig-Holstein: 19 December 1804 (part of Denmark–Norway) Swedish Pomerania: 4 July 1806 Duchy of Warsaw (Poland): 22 July 1807 Prussia: 9 October 1807 (effectively 1811–1823) Mecklenburg: October 1807 (effectively 1820) Bavaria: 31 August 1808 Old Finland in 1812 (as the area was incorporated into Grand Duchy of Finland where serfdom had not existed in centuries, if ever) Nassau: 1 September 1812 Spain: 18 March 1812 (first step; second step: 26 August 1837) Argentina: 1813 Governorate of Estonia: 23 March 1816

Governorate of Courland: 25 August 1817 Württemberg: 18 November 1817 Governorate of Livonia: 26 March 1819 Hanover: 1831 Saxony: 17 March 1832 Hawaii: 1835 Hungary: 11 April 1848 Croatia: First steps in 1780 and 1785. Final step on 8 May 1848. Austrian Empire: 7 September 1848 Bulgaria: 1858 (de jure by Ottoman Empire; de facto in 1878) Russian Empire: 19 February 1861 (see Emancipation reform of 1861) Tonga: 1862 Congress Poland: 1864 Georgia: 1864–1871 Kalmykia: 1892 Iceland: 1894 (Vistarband) Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1918 Afghanistan: 1923 Bhutan: officially abolished by 1959 Tibet, People's Republic of China: 29 March 1959, but use of "serf" for Tibet is controversial. There are differences depending on the region and sect.