Late antiquity

Late antiquity was a time period between classical antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. The exact start and end dates are debated, but it is often thought to span roughly from 250 to 750. This period covered much of the Mediterranean world, including parts of Europe and the Near East.

It was an era of big changes in politics and religion. This was when the three major monotheistic religions—Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and Islam—began or grew strong. It was also when the Bible and the Quran were put together in their final forms.

Politically, this time saw the end of the Western Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire, the last Persian empire of antiquity. It also saw the beginning of the Arab conquests and the formation of the Rashidun Caliphate. Meanwhile, the Byzantine Empire became more focused on its military and fully Christian.

Culturally, late antiquity was a time of great innovation. New kinds of public buildings appeared, like the Hagia Sophia, and there was also new literature and art that developed during this time.

Terminology

The term "late antiquity" has been used by historians since the early 1900s. A book called The World of Late Antiquity by Peter Brown helped change how people think about this time. Instead of seeing it as a slow end to the classical world, Brown showed it as a time of new beginnings and changes.

This period links the later Roman Empire to the Early Middle Ages. Some writers point out that many ideas and traditions from the Christianized Roman Empire carried on, especially in the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Groups like the Ostrogoths and Visigoths also thought of themselves as continuing Roman traditions. While "late antiquity" suggests that classical traditions lasted into the Middle Ages, other terms like "Early Middle Ages" or "Migration Period" highlight a shift away from the classical past.

Main events

During the time of Diocletian, the Roman Empire changed a lot. He started a system with four emperors at once called the Tetrarchy. New rulers called the Sasanians took over from the Parthian leaders in Persia, leading to wars between Rome and the Sasanians. Constantine the Great made Christianity legal with the Edict of Milan, and later Theodosius I made it the official religion of the empire.

In the 5th century, many tribes like the Germanic and Hunnic moved into the Roman Empire, causing big changes. Rome was taken over by groups such as the Visigoths and the Vandals. By 476, the western part of the Roman Empire fell apart. In the east, Constantinople became the new important city.

In the 6th century, the leader Justinian the Great brought back much of Italy and North Africa under Roman control. He built amazing structures like the Hagia Sophia and helped organize Roman laws. However, a big sickness called the Plague of Justinian caused many problems. Later, new groups from the Arabian Peninsula changed the world even more.

Religion

Main article: Christianity in late antiquity

One of the biggest changes during late antiquity was the growth of Abrahamic religions, such as Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and later Islam.

A key moment for the spread of Christianity happened when Emperor Constantine the Great became a Christian around 312. He made Christianity legal by signing the Edict of Milan in 313 with his co-ruler, Licinius. By the late 300s, Emperor Theodosius I made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, changing the way people lived and thought.

Constantine played an important role in Christian history. He brought together leaders from across the church to discuss important beliefs at a meeting in Nicaea in 325. He also helped build important churches, like the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and talked about big questions like when Christ's resurrection happened.

During this time, many new Christian ideas and ways of living grew. One big change was the start of Christian monasticism in the 200s. Monasticism, or living a simple life to focus on faith, became very popular and spread widely. Other new Christian groups and practices also appeared, shaping how Christians lived their lives.

Late antiquity also saw the end of the old Roman ways of worshipping many gods. Instead, there was a lot of mixing of different beliefs and new religious ideas. For example, Buddhism grew in places like India and along trade routes, and a belief system called Manichaeism spread from Mesopotamia.

Laity vs. clergy

In the 4th century, as Christianity became more accepted, a clear difference grew between ordinary people and church leaders. Many leaders chose not to marry and lived differently from most Romans. This set them apart as a special group in society.

The rise of Islam

Islam began in the 7th century. Its followers, led by Arab leaders, moved into areas controlled by the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanian Empire in Persia. They took over places like North Africa and parts of Spain, but were stopped by a leader named Charles Martel in what is now France.

Cities

The later Roman Empire was like a network of cities. Archaeologists help us understand how these cities changed and sometimes collapsed. One big change was how spaces were used—big open areas in homes and public buildings were split up, and shops moved into places that used to be public roads. Burials inside city limits showed how people were drawn to holy places and relics.

Rome’s population dropped from 800,000 to just 30,000 because its water systems broke during a war. Other cities, like Constantinople, also saw their numbers go down, especially after a major disease outbreak. In Europe, many cities became smaller, and trade slowed down. In the East, cities like Constantinople stayed important for politics and religion longer. Some new cities were built for defense, and others grew because of new cultures arriving. Overall, this time brought big changes to how people lived in cities.

Sculpture and art

The art of late antiquity shows big changes from the older Roman styles to what came later in the Middle Ages. Instead of focusing on realistic human bodies, artists began to show more spiritual ideas. They liked to use mosaics, which are tiny square pieces that sparkle in the light, especially in churches. These mosaics told religious stories in a symbolic way, not like real-life paintings.

Artists also started to make sculptures and carvings that were simpler and more stiff. For example, the Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs shows figures that are not very natural-looking. Early Christian art grew during this time, with new ways to show scenes from the Bible. Luxury items like fancy silver plates and detailed carvings became popular too.

Literature

Main article: Late antique literature

During late antiquity, literature changed a lot. People used classical Greek and Latin less, and new languages like Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Coptic became important for writing. Books started to be written in a special way, with summaries of older works and clever stories.

This time also saw many Christian writers sharing their ideas. Famous writers included Eusebius of Caesarea, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, John Chrysostom, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome, and Augustine of Hippo. Some writers, like Ammianus Marcellinus and Procopius of Caesarea, kept the old style of writing alive.

Because of tough times and wars, books about military strategies became popular. One well-known book is the Strategikon, written by Emperor Maurice in the 6th century.

Christian writers also wrote a lot about the story of creation from the book of Genesis. Basil of Caesarea and Jacob of Serugh were among those who wrote about these topics.