Mexican War of Independence

The Mexican War of Independence was a long struggle that led to Mexico breaking free from the rule of the Spanish Empire. It began in 1810 and ended in 1821 when Mexico officially declared its independence. This war was not one single battle but many local fights happening at the same time, making it more like a big revolution.

The war started because of big changes happening in Spain. In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain and put his brother on the throne, which made many people in Spain and its colonies very unhappy. This led to new local governments called juntas trying to rule in the name of the old Spanish king. In Mexico, these changes caused tension between leaders born in Mexico and those born in Spain.

The first big push for independence was led by a priest named Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who called for people to rise up on September 16, 1810. Though Hidalgo was later caught and executed, the fight continued under other leaders like José María Morelos and Vicente Guerrero. Finally, in 1821, a former royal army leader named Agustín de Iturbide joined forces with Guerrero. Together, they created a plan called the Plan of Iguala and quickly took control of Mexico City. The Spanish leader there signed a treaty to end the war, and Mexico became its own country.

Prior challenges to crown rule

Even after Mexico became part of Spain, some people began to think about being their own nation, but these ideas were mostly among wealthy families. True attempts to challenge Spanish rule before 1810 were few and far between.

One early challenge happened in 1542 when new laws were introduced that would end certain land rights. This led to a plot involving Don Martín Cortés, the son of Hernán Cortés, but it was stopped, and the leaders were punished.

In 1624, some powerful people forced out a viceroy who tried to change unfair business practices. Later, in 1642, a man named William Lamport tried to start a rebellion to make Mexico independent, but he was caught and punished.

In 1692, a big riot broke out in Mexico City over high food prices, where people attacked buildings linked to Spanish leaders. The government responded harshly to stop any more uprisings.

These events showed that not everyone was happy with Spanish rule, but they were not part of a large movement for independence until later years.

Age of Revolution, Spain and New Spain

In the early 1800s, big changes were happening around the world. The Age of Revolution had begun, and when Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, it shook Spain and its colonies, including Mexico.

Before this, Mexico — known then as New Spain — was part of the Spanish Empire. Spain had made many changes called the Bourbon Reforms to strengthen its control. These changes took power away from local leaders and the Catholic church, and sent much of Mexico's wealth back to Spain. This made many local leaders unhappy.

There were also differences in how people were treated. People born in Spain had the most power, while those born in Mexico, including many leaders, felt left out. There were also cultural and religious differences, with many local traditions clashing with the official church rules. All these tensions helped set the stage for Mexico to seek independence.

French invasion of Spain and political crisis in New Spain, 1808–1809

When France invaded Spain in 1808, it caused big problems not just in Spain but also in its colonies, including New Spain (which is now Mexico). The leader of New Spain, called the viceroy, was very important because he was like the king's representative. But when the king of Spain was removed by France, people in New Spain started to question who should really be in charge.

Some people in New Spain wanted more self-rule and equality with Spain, but others opposed these ideas. There was a lot of tension between different groups. A leader named José de Iturrigaray tried to find a middle ground, but he was overthrown by people who didn’t trust him. After this, new leaders took over, but many people felt these leaders were not rightful rulers. This situation made some groups in New Spain start planning ways to break away from Spanish control, which later led to bigger movements for independence.

The Hidalgo revolt, 1810–1811

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla is seen as the father of Mexican independence. On September 16, 1810, he started an uprising that began the Mexican War of Independence. He inspired many ordinary people to join him, though he did not organize them well or have a clear battle plan. He wanted to end the old ways of ruling.

Hidalgo was a priest who spoke several languages and had many books. He joined with friends who wanted change. With a friend named Ignacio Allende, he planned to rise up against the rulers. When they were discovered, Hidalgo called for action on September 16, 1810, in Dolores, telling people to fight against bad leaders.

The uprising grew quickly as more people joined, using tools as weapons. They moved through towns, gathering followers. In Guanajuato on September 28, they fought fiercely against Spanish forces. The new leader of the area sent soldiers to stop them, but Hidalgo’s group kept growing.

Though Hidalgo’s followers were not well organized, they kept fighting. They took some cities but then moved back, missing a chance to take Mexico City. Later, Hidalgo and his leaders were caught. They were tried and executed, with their heads shown in public as a warning.

Insurgency in the South under Morelos, 1811–1815

After the main leaders of the uprising were captured, the fight for independence moved to the southern parts of Mexico. New leaders rose up in towns like Zitácuaro, Cuautla, and Antequera (now Oaxaca). Important figures such as priests José María Morelos and Mariano Matamoros, along with Vicente Guerrero, Guadalupe Victoria, and Ignacio López Rayón, took charge. They used clever, small-group fighting tactics and created plans to guide their movement.

One leader, Ignacio López Rayón, had been in Saltillo, Coahuila, with many men and cannons. When he heard the main leaders were captured, he moved south to keep fighting. He fought in several battles and set up a group to lead the uprising. Father José María Morelos led many successful fights, capturing important places. Even when surrounded by enemy forces, Morelos’s troops held strong and continued to win.

Morelos was not interested in being the top leader, but others saw him as the main military commander. He quickly organized things, removed Rayón from power, and in 1813, he brought together representatives of the uprising in a meeting called the Congress of Chilpancingo. At this meeting, Morelos stated clearly that Mexico should be free and independent from Spain.

In November 1813, the Congress signed the first official document declaring Mexico’s independence. This document not only said Mexico was free from Spain but also called for ending slavery and treating everyone equally, no matter their background. It also stated that Mexico would have its own laws and rights.

The Congress chose Morelos to lead the government and the fight for independence. Sadly, the royal army restructured its forces to stop the uprising. One of the uprising’s leaders, Mariano Matamoros, was captured. Morelos was later captured, tried, and executed. After his death, the fight continued with smaller, hidden groups.

Insurgency under Vicente Guerrero, 1815–1820

With the end of another leader in 1815, Vicente Guerrero became a key leader fighting for Mexico's independence from Spain. From 1815 to 1821, most battles happened in the warm southern parts of Mexico and some areas in the north. In 1816, a Spanish military leader named Francisco Javier Mina joined the fight for independence. He and 300 men landed in Tamaulipas in April 1817 and fought for seven months before being captured in November 1817.

Two important insurgent leaders emerged: Guadalupe Victoria in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in a village called Tixla, now part of the state of Guerrero. Both leaders earned the loyalty and respect of their followers. The Spanish viceroy offered pardons to rebels who stopped fighting, and many did, but many later returned to the fight. The Spanish army controlled the big cities, but many rural areas remained unsafe. From 1816 to 1820, the fighting stalled, with neither side able to win decisively. Royalist officer Antonio López de Santa Anna led former rebels who had accepted pardons, chasing Guadalupe Victoria. Insurgents attacked important roads, hurting trade and Spanish control, leading Spain to send a commander from Peru to build a protected road between Veracruz and Jalapa.

This period from 1816 to 1820 is often seen as a time when neither side could win. Insurgents used guerrilla tactics and sometimes acted like bandits, while Spanish forces grew discouraged. Spain sent few new soldiers, though some senior officers arrived. By 1814, Spain had defeated Napoleon, and Ferdinand VII became king. He broke promises to limit his power. Spain did not send enough money to support the war, so many soldiers were not paid and avoided dangerous battles, staying near fortified places. Local people were forced to supply the Spanish troops. Some high-ranking officers gave up on winning and instead grew rich by taking property from insurgents and taxing local businesses.

In December 1820, the viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a royalist Colonel Agustín de Iturbide to defeat Guerrero's forces in Oaxaca. Iturbide, from Morelia, was known for his strong actions against earlier rebels. He was a favorite of the Mexican church and valued tradition and property rights, but he was also frustrated by not being promoted or becoming wealthy.

Guerrero, Iturbide, and the Plan of Iguala

In 1820, big changes were happening in Spain that affected Mexico. Leaders in Spain changed the rules, and this news reached Mexico. One leader, Iturbide, saw this as a chance to help Mexico become independent. The army in Mexico was weak, and without support, many soldiers went home. This gave rebels more space to plan.

Guerrero, a rebel leader, worried that rich families might take over without including everyone. He met with Iturbide, and they made a plan called the Plan of Iguala. This plan promised three important things: Mexico would be independent, all people would be treated equally no matter their background, and the Roman Catholic Church would stay important. Iturbide created a new army to support this plan, and many people joined because they liked these ideas. Though not everyone agreed, this plan helped bring Mexico closer to independence.

Collapse of imperial rule and independence

Iturbide convinced royalist officers to switch sides and support independence, joining the mixed-race insurgent forces. Some royalist commanders simply left, while others were pardoned. In July 1821, the high military command in Mexico City removed the viceroy, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, and replaced him with an interim viceroy, royalist general Francisco Novella. By the time Juan O'Donojú became the new viceroy, almost the entire country backed the Plan of Iguala. Most soldiers joined Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees, and the Spanish cause was defeated. On August 24, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown, including O'Donojú and Iturbide, signed the Treaty of Córdoba, recognizing Mexican independence under the Plan of Iguala. O'Donojú then stepped down as viceroy. The Spanish government claimed O'Donojú couldn't sign the treaty, but Iturbide and the Army of Three Guarantees entered Mexico City triumphantly on September 27, 1821. The next day, the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire was proclaimed. The Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba quickly united insurgents and former royalists, leading to independence with little further fighting. After independence, disagreements between different groups quickly resurfaced.

Creation of the First Mexican Empire

Main articles: Agustín de Iturbide and First Mexican Empire

On September 27, 1821, troops supporting independence entered Mexico City. The next day, Agustín de Iturbide announced that Mexico would no longer be part of Spain. A treaty was signed, but Spain did not agree to it. Iturbide made sure the new country could choose its own leader if no European royal would take the job.

In May 1822, people in Mexico asked Iturbide to become the leader of the new country. The following day, the government named him Emperor of Mexico. Later that year, Iturbide closed the government and put in place people who supported him.

Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico

Main article: Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico

Even after Mexico became a nation, Spain still held onto the fortress at San Juan de Ulúa near the port of Veracruz. It wasn’t until November 23, 1825, that Mexican forces took control of it. Spain tried to take back Mexico again, leading to the Battle of Tampico in 1829, where Spanish soldiers were trapped and had to give up.

Finally, on December 28, 1836, Spain officially accepted that Mexico was independent through the Santa María–Calatrava Treaty. This made Mexico the first country Spain had acknowledged as independent after losing a colony, followed later by Ecuador in 1840.

Legacy

See also: Celebration of Mexican political anniversaries in 2010

In 1910, to mark 100 years since the start of Mexico's fight for freedom, President Porfirio Díaz opened a grand monument called the Angel of Independence in Paseo de la Reforma. This monument helped people remember Mexico's journey to becoming its own country.

Mexico became independent from Spain in September 1821, but people did not start celebrating this right away. The leader who helped Mexico gain independence, Iturbide, became the country's emperor but was forced to leave just two years later. Because of this, many people did not feel it was right to celebrate on the day his army entered Mexico City. Instead, people began celebrating on September 16 to remember the moment when a leader named Hidalgo called for Mexico to fight for its freedom.

During Díaz's time as leader from 1876 to 1911, big celebrations happened every year on September 15 and 16 in the main square of Mexico City, called the zócalo. People rang bells, including one famous bell that Hidalgo had used, to mark the occasion. These celebrations continue today as a way to honor Mexico's independence.