Mexico City

Mexico City is the capital and the most populous city of Mexico, as well as the most populous city in North America. It is a very important cultural and financial center in the world. The city is located in the Valley of Mexico within the high Mexican central plateau, at an altitude of 2,240 meters (7,350 feet).

The city has 16 boroughs or demarcaciones territoriales, which are in turn divided into neighborhoods or colonias. In 2020, the population for the city proper was 9,209,944, making it the primate city of Mexico and the second largest Spanish-speaking city proper in the world after Lima, Peru.

Mexico City is the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Indigenous peoples. The city was originally built on a group of islands in Lake Texcoco by the Mexica around 1325, under the name Tenochtitlan. It was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with Spanish urban standards. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, and beginning in 1585, it was officially known as Ciudad de México (Mexico City).

After years of demanding greater political autonomy, in 1997 residents were finally given the right to elect both a head of government and the representatives of the unicameral Legislative Assembly by election. Ever since, left-wing parties have controlled both of them. The city has several progressive policies. On 29 January 2016, it ceased to be the Federal District (DF) and is now officially known as Ciudad de México (CDMX). These 2016 reforms gave the city a greater degree of autonomy and made changes to its governance and political power structures.

Nicknames and mottos

Mexico City used to be called "DF," short for Distrito Federal de México, but now it's more commonly known as "CDMX," pronounced "seh-deh-meh-kiss." Sometimes people just call it "México" when talking about the area locally. People from Mexico City are called chilango, a term that was once used in a teasing way by people from other places.

The city has had many nicknames over time. One famous nickname is La Ciudad de los Palacios ("the City of the Palaces"), given by Baron Alexander von Humboldt after he visited in the 1800s. He thought the city could match any big city in Europe. The city also had a motto during colonial times, and newer slogans like la Ciudad de la Esperanza ("The City of Hope") and Capital en Movimiento ("Capital in Movement") have been used by recent leaders.

History

Main article: History of Mexico City

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Mexico City.

The oldest signs of human occupation in the area of Mexico City are those of the "Peñón woman" and others found in San Bartolo Atepehuacan (Gustavo A. Madero). They were believed to correspond to the lower Cenolithic period (9500–7000 BC). However, a 2003 study placed the age of the Peñon woman at 12,700 years old (calendar age), one of the oldest human remains discovered in the Americas.

The area was the destination of the migrations of the Teochichimecas during the 8th and 13th centuries, people that would give rise to the Toltec, and Mexica (Aztecs) cultures. The latter arrived around the 14th century to settle first on the shores of the lake.

Aztec period

Main article: Mexico-Tenochtitlan

The city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325 or 1327. The old Mexica city that is now referred to as Tenochtitlan was built on an island in the center of the inland lake system of the Valley of Mexico, which is shared with a smaller city-state called Tlatelolco. According to legend, the Mexicas' principal god, Huitzilopochtli, indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting a golden eagle perched on a prickly pear devouring a rattlesnake.

Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco and in the Valley of Mexico. When the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean.

Spanish conquest

After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the other native peoples, arriving there on 8 November 1519. Cortés and his men marched along the causeway leading into the city from Iztapalapa (Ixtapalapa), and the city's ruler, Moctezuma II, greeted the Spaniards; they exchanged gifts, but the camaraderie did not last long. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest at his father's palace, hoping to rule through him.

Tensions increased until, on the night of 30 June 1520 – during a struggle known as "La Noche Triste" – the Aztecs rose up against the Spanish intrusion and managed to capture or drive out the Europeans and their Tlaxcalan allies. Cortés regrouped at Tlaxcala. The Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died; the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521. For three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island and slowly fought their way through the city. Cuauhtémoc surrendered in August 1521. The Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest.

Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order. He did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown. The first Spanish viceroy arrived in Mexico City fourteen years later. By that time, the city had again become a city-state, having power that extended far beyond its borders. Although the Spanish preserved Tenochtitlan's basic layout, they built Catholic churches over the old Aztec temples and claimed the imperial palaces for themselves. Tenochtitlan was renamed "Mexico" because the Spanish found the word easier to pronounce.

Growth of colonial Mexico City

The city had been the capital of the Aztec Empire and in the colonial era, Mexico City became the capital of New Spain. The viceroy of Mexico or vice-king lived in the viceregal palace on the main square or Zócalo. The Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, the seat of the Archbishopric of New Spain, was constructed on another side of the Zócalo, as was the archbishop's palace, and across from it the building housing the city council or ayuntamiento of the city. A late seventeenth-century painting of the Zócalo by Cristóbal de Villalpando depicts the main square, which had been the old Aztec ceremonial center. The existing central plaza of the Aztecs was effectively and permanently transformed to the ceremonial center and seat of power during the colonial period, and remains to this day in modern Mexico, the central plaza of the nation. The rebuilding of the city after the siege of Tenochtitlan was accomplished by the abundant indigenous labor in the surrounding area.

Preconquest Tenochtitlan was built in the center of the inland lake system, with the city reachable by canoe and by wide causeways to the mainland. The causeways were rebuilt under Spanish rule with indigenous labor. Colonial Spanish cities were constructed on a grid pattern, if no geographical obstacle prevented it. In Mexico City, the Zócalo (main square) was the central place from which the grid was then built outward. The Spanish lived in the area closest to the main square in what was known as the traza, in orderly, well laid-out streets. Indigenous residences were outside that exclusive zone and houses were haphazardly located. The Zócalo was a center of commerce for indigenous people, making Spanish efforts to keep the area segregated difficult to enforce. At intervals Zócalo was where major celebrations took place as well as executions. It was also the site of two major riots in the seventeenth century, one in 1624, the other in 1692.

The city grew as the population did, coming up against the lake's waters. As the depth of the lake water fluctuated, Mexico City was subject to periodic flooding. A major labor draft, the desagüe, compelled thousands of indigenous over the colonial period to work on infrastructure to prevent flooding. Floods were not only an inconvenience but also a health hazard, since during flood periods human waste polluted the city's streets. By draining the area, the mosquito population dropped as did the frequency of the diseases they spread. However, draining the wetlands also changed the habitat for fish and birds and the areas accessible for indigenous cultivation close to the capital. The 16th century saw a proliferation of churches, many of which can still be seen today in the historic center. Economically, Mexico City prospered as a result of trade. Unlike Brazil or Peru, Mexico had easy contact with both the Atlantic and Pacific worlds. Although the Spanish crown tried to completely regulate all commerce in the city, it had only partial success.

The concept of nobility flourished in New Spain in a way not seen in other parts of the Americas. Spaniards encountered a society in which the concept of nobility mirrored that of their own. Spaniards respected the indigenous order of nobility and added to it. In the ensuing centuries, possession of a noble title in Mexico did not mean one exercised great political power, for one's power was limited even if the accumulation of wealth was not. The concept of nobility in Mexico was not political but rather a very conservative Spanish social one, based on proving the worthiness of the family. Most of these families proved their worth by making fortunes in New Spain outside of the city itself, then spending the revenues in the capital, building churches, supporting charities and building extravagant palatial homes. The craze to build the most opulent residence possible reached its height in the last half of the 18th century. Many of these palaces can still be seen today, leading to Mexico City's nickname of "The city of palaces" given by Alexander Von Humboldt.

The Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores"), also known as El Grito de la Independencia ("Cry of Independence"), marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence. The Battle of Guanajuato, the first major engagement of the insurgency, occurred four days later. After a decade of war, Mexico's independence from Spain was effectively declared in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on 27 September 1821. Agustín de Iturbide is proclaimed Emperor of the First Mexican Empire by Congress, crowned in the Cathedral of Mexico.

The Mexican Federal District was established by the new government and by the signing of their new constitution, where the concept of a federal district was adapted from the United States Constitution. Before this designation, Mexico City had served as the seat of government for both the State of Mexico and the nation as a whole. Texcoco de Mora and then Toluca became the capital of the State of Mexico.

Battle of Mexico City in the U.S.–Mexican War of 1847

During the 19th century, Mexico City was the center stage of all the political disputes of the country. It was the imperial capital on two occasions (1821–1823 and 1864–1867), and of two federalist states and two centralist states that followed innumerable coups d'états in the space of half a century before the triumph of the Liberals after the Reform War. It was also the objective of one of the two French invasions to Mexico (1861–1867), and occupied for a year by American troops in the framework of the Mexican–American War (1847–1848).

The Battle for Mexico City was the series of engagements from 8 to 15 September 1847, in the general vicinity of Mexico City during the U.S. Mexican War. Included are major actions at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec, culminating with the fall of Mexico City. The U.S. Army under Winfield Scott scored a major success that ended the war. The American invasion into the Federal District was first resisted during the Battle of Churubusco on 8 August, where the Saint Patrick's Battalion, which was composed primarily of Catholic Irish and German immigrants but also Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexicans, fought for the Mexican cause, repelling the American attacks. After defeating the Saint Patrick's Battalion, the Mexican–American War came to a close after the United States deployed combat units deep into Mexico resulting in the capture of Mexico City and Veracruz by the U.S. Army's 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Divisions. The invasion culminated with the storming of Chapultepec Castle in the city itself.

During this battle, on 13 September, the 4th Division, under John A. Quitman, spearheaded the attack against Chapultepec and carried the castle. Future Confederate generals George E. Pickett and James Longstreet participated in the attack. Serving in the Mexican defense were the cadets later immortalized as Los Niños Héroes (the "Boy Heroes"). The Mexican forces fell back from Chapultepec and retreated within the city. Attacks on the Belén and San Cosme Gates came afterwards. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in what is now the far north of the city.

Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)

The capital escaped the worst of the violence of the ten-year conflict of the Mexican Revolution. The most significant episode of this period for the city was the Decena Trágica ("Ten Tragic Days") of February 1913, when forces counter to the elected government of Francisco I. Madero staged a successful coup. The center of the city was subjected to artillery attacks from the army stronghold of the ciudadela or citadel, with significant civilian casualties and the undermining of confidence in the Madero government. Victoriano Huerta, chief general of the Federal Army, saw a chance to take power, forcing Madero and Pino Suarez to sign resignations. The two were murdered later while on their way to Lecumberri prison. Huerta's ouster in July 1914 saw the entry of the armies of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, but the city did not experience violence. Huerta had abandoned the capital and the conquering armies marched in. Venustiano Carranza's Constitutionalist faction ultimately prevailed in the revolutionary civil war and Carranza took up residence in the presidential palace.

20th century to present

In the 20th century the phenomenal growth of the city and its environmental and political consequences dominate. In 1900, the population of Mexico City was about 500,000. The city began to grow rapidly westward in the early part of the 20th century and then began to grow upwards in the 1950s, with the Torre Latinoamericana becoming the city's first skyscraper.

The rapid development of Mexico City as a center for modernist architecture was most fully manifested in the mid-1950s construction of the Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, the main campus of the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Designed by the most prestigious architects of the era, including Mario Pani, Eugenio Peschard, and Enrique del Moral, the buildings feature murals by artists Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Chávez Morado. It has since been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The 1968 Olympic Games brought about the construction of large sporting facilities. In 1969, the Mexico City Metro was inaugurated. Explosive growth in the population of the city started in the 1960s, with the population overflowing the boundaries of the Federal District into the neighboring State of Mexico, especially to the north, northwest, and northeast. Between 1960 and 1980 the city's population more than doubled to nearly 9 million.

In 1980, half of all the industrial jobs in Mexico were located in Mexico City. Under relentless growth, the Mexico City government could barely keep up with services. Villagers from the countryside who continued to pour into the city to escape poverty only compounded the city's problems. With no housing available, they took over lands surrounding the city, creating huge shanty towns. The inhabitants of Mexico City faced serious air pollution and water pollution problems, as well as groundwater-related subsidence. Air and water pollution has been contained and improved in several areas due to government programs, the renovation of vehicles and the modernization of public transportation.

On 19 September 1985, at 7:19am CST, the area was struck by the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. The earthquake proved to be a disaster politically for the one-party state government. The Mexican government was paralyzed by its own bureaucracy and corruption, forcing ordinary citizens to create and direct their own rescue efforts and to reconstruct much of the housing that was lost as well. In 1987, the Historic center of Mexico City, a central neighborhood of Mexico City was enlisted as UNESCO World Heritage Site for its large collection of ancient Aztec and colonial architecture.

Geography

Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico, also called the Basin of Mexico, within the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the high plateaus of south-central Mexico. The city sits at a minimum altitude of 2,200 meters (7,200 feet) above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach over 5,000 meters (16,000 feet).

Originally, much of the valley was covered by Lake Texcoco. The Aztecs built dikes to separate fresh water for farming and to prevent floods. Today, the city rests on the drained lake bed, which is made of soft, wet clay. This causes the ground to sink, especially as groundwater is used up. The city has sunk up to nine meters (30 feet) in some places since the 20th century and continues to sink about 50 centimeters (20 inches) each year, leading to flooding problems, especially in the summer.

The city has many parks and green spaces. Chapultepec Park is one of the most famous, with museums, ponds, and the Chapultepec Zoo. Other parks include Alameda Central, Parque México, Parque España, and several smaller parks throughout the city. There are also larger green areas like Bosque de Tlalpan, Viveros de Coyoacán, and the Xochimilco Ecological Park.

Mexico City has a subtropical highland climate. The average temperature ranges from 12 to 16 °C (54 to 61 °F), with the lowest ever recorded at −4.4 °C (24 °F) and the highest at 34.7 °C (94.5 °F). Rain falls mostly from May through October, with July being the wettest month. Snow is very rare, having last fallen in 1967. The city experiences two main seasons: a wet summer and a dry winter.

Mexico City geophysical maps
Topography	Hydrology	Climate patterns

Demographics

The Valley of Mexico, where Mexico City is located, has been densely populated since ancient times. In the early 1800s, the city began to grow, with wealthy families moving to the west and south, creating a divide between richer and poorer areas.

Today, Mexico City is one of the largest cities in the world, with around 9.2 million people living within the city itself and millions more in the surrounding areas. The city is very important for culture, business, and education in Mexico. Many people from different backgrounds live there, including Indigenous groups, people from other parts of Mexico, and many international residents.

Main article: Greater Mexico City

Politics

The Acta Constitutiva de la Federación of 31 January 1824, and the Federal Constitution of 4 October 1824, set up the political and administrative organization of the United Mexican States after the Mexican War of Independence. In addition, Section XXVIII of Article 50 gave the new Congress the right to choose where the federal government would be located. This location would then be taken as federal land, with the federal government acting as the local authority. The two main cities to become the capital were Mexico City and Querétaro.

Because of the persuasion of representative Servando Teresa de Mier, Mexico City was chosen because it was the center of the country's population and history, even though Queretaro was closer to the center geographically. The choice was official on 18 November 1824, and Congress marked out a surface area of two leagues square (8,800 acres) centered on the Zocalo. This area was then separated from the State of Mexico, forcing that state's government to move from the Palace of the Inquisition (now Museum of Mexican Medicine) in the city to Texcoco. This area did not include the population centers of the towns of Coyoacán, Xochimilco, Mexicaltzingo and Tlalpan, all of which remained as part of the State of Mexico.

On 29 January 2016, Mexico City stopped being the Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F.), and was officially renamed "Ciudad de México" (or "CDMX"). On that date, Mexico City began a shift to becoming the country's 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of self-control like that of a state. It will have its own rules and its group of leaders, and its areas will now be led by leaders chosen by the people. Because of a rule in the Mexican rules, however, as it is the home of the country's leaders, it can never become a state, or the home of the country's leaders has to be moved somewhere else.

The leaders of Mexico City at the end of the 20th century often followed rules that were more open than those of the rest of the country, whether with the support of the country's leaders, as was the case with the approval of several rules about taking care of the air and water in the 1980s, or by rules that were later approved by the group of leaders. The group of leaders grew rules about how women could choose for themselves in certain matters, becoming the first place in the country to grow such rules. In December 2009, the then Federal District became the first city in Latin America and one of very few in the world to okay two people of the same gender to join together in a family group.

After the political changes in 2016, the city is split for managing purposes into 16 areas, formerly called delegaciones. While they are not fully the same as smaller countries, these areas have gained important self-control. Leaders of these areas were first chosen by the people in 2000. From 2016, each area is led by a leader chosen by the people, growing their powers to manage local matters.

The Secretariat of Safety of Mexico City manages a group of more than 90,000 workers to watch over public order and safety in the heart of Mexico City. The old part of the city is also watched by police who help visitors, wearing old-style clothes on horses.

Economy

Mexico City is one of the most important economic centers in Latin America. The city produces a big part of the country's gross domestic product. It is also a rich city, with many people having a lot of money to spend. This makes it a good place for businesses that sell special and luxury goods.

The city plays a big role in many parts of the country’s economy, especially in services. It has many shops and markets where people can buy things, from food to very expensive items. There are many different places to shop, like markets, stores, and big shopping malls. The city also has important places for tourism, such as the Historic center of Mexico City and Xochimilco, which attract many visitors from around the world.

Main article: Barrios Mágicos of Mexico City

Transportation

Main article: Transportation in Mexico City

Main article: Tren Suburbano

Main article: Ecobici (Mexico City)

Mexico City has many ways to get around, making it easy for people to travel. The city’s main airport is Mexico City International Airport, which is busy and serves many flights. There is also a second airport called Felipe Ángeles International Airport that opened in 2022.

The city has a big subway system called the Mexico City Metro, which is the largest in Latin America. It has many lines and stations, helping millions of people get to where they need to go each day. There are also buses, including special fast buses, and bike-sharing programs like Ecobici that make it easier to ride bicycles around the city.

Culture

Art

Main article: Mexican art

Mexico City's art history is rich and varied. One famous bronze sculpture is El Caballito ("The little horse"), created by artist Manuel Tolsá and located in the Plaza Tolsá near the Palacio de Mineria. The Museo Nacional de Arte (Munal) stands right in front of this building.

During the 19th century, the San Carlos Art Academy trained many artists. Students and teachers created works now displayed in the National Museum of San Carlos. José María Velasco was a standout landscape painter from this time. Later, muralism became a big movement after the Mexican Revolution, with artists like José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Diego Rivera painting large murals in public buildings. Frida Kahlo, Rivera's wife, was another famous painter known for her strong nationalist style.

Museums

Mexico City has many museums showing art from Mexico and around the world. The Museo Tamayo features international modern art, while the Museo de Arte Moderno focuses on Mexican artists from the 1900s. Other museums include the Carrillo Gil Museum and the Museo Universitario Arte Contemporáneo, both showing modern and avant-garde art. The Museo Soumaya has a big collection of sculptures by famous artists like Rodin and Dalí. The Colección Júmex is a contemporary art museum with a huge private collection.

Music, theater and entertainment

Further information: Music of Mexico and Regional styles of Mexican music

Mexico City has many places to enjoy music. The city has several orchestras, including the Mexico City Philharmonic and the National Symphony Orchestra, which perform in beautiful venues like the Palacio de Bellas Artes. The city is also a hub for popular music, with large venues like the National Auditorium hosting concerts by famous artists from around the world.

The city offers many other entertainment options, including theaters, dance performances, and film screenings. Venues like the National Center for the Arts and the University Culture Center host a wide range of shows. The Papalote Museo del Niño is a children's museum with fun activities, and Six Flags México is a large amusement park.

Cuisine

Main article: Cuisine of Mexico City

Mexico City is famous for its tasty food. Tacos became a popular street food in the 19th century, and today the city has many places to try different kinds of tacos, enchiladas, and other Mexican dishes. The La Nueva Viga Market is one of the world's largest seafood markets.

The city has restaurants serving food from all over Mexico and the world. From fancy dining spots to local eateries, Mexico City offers something for every taste. The restaurant Pujol, led by chef Enrique Olvera, was ranked among the best in the world.

Media

Mexico City is a major center for newspapers, magazines, and book publishing. Well-known newspapers include El Universal, Excélsior, and La Jornada. The city is also home to big media companies like Televisa and TV Azteca, which produce many TV shows and news programs.

Sports

Association football is very popular in Mexico City. The city's big stadiums like Azteca Stadium and Olympic Stadium host top teams and international matches. Mexico City has also been an important host for many sports events, including the Summer Olympics in 1968, the Pan American Games, and Formula 1 races. Other popular sports in the city include baseball, wrestling, and motorsports.