Mohenjo-daro

Mohenjo-daro is an ancient archaeological site in the Larkana District of Sindh, Pakistan. Built around the year 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, and one of the world's earliest major cities. It was about the same time as the civilisations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoa, and Norte Chico.

With an estimated population of at least 40,000 people, Mohenjo-daro was a big and busy place for many centuries. But around 1700 BCE, the city and other large cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation were left empty and unused.

The site was rediscovered in the 1920s, and many excavations have taken place since then. In 1980, Mohenjo-daro was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the first site in South Asia to receive this honour. Today, the site faces threats from erosion and improper restoration.

Etymology

We do not know the original name of this ancient city. Some experts think it might have been called "Kukkuṭārma", which could mean "the city of the cockerel." Cock-fighting may have been important in the city's traditions.

Today, the name Mohenjo-daro means "Mound of the Dead" in the Sindhi language.

Location

Mohenjo-daro is found on the west side of the lower Indus river in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan. It sits on a Pleistocene ridge in the flood plain of the Indus, about 28 kilometres (17 miles) from the town of Larkana.

Historical context

Mohenjo-daro was built around 2500 BC. It was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation, also known as the Harappan Civilisation. This civilisation developed around 3000 BC and covered much of what is now Pakistan and North India. It reached as far west as the Iranian border, south to Gujarat in India, and north to an outpost in Bactria. Important cities included Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi. Mohenjo-daro was very advanced for its time, with impressive planning and building skills. Around 1700 BCE, as the Indus civilisation began to decline, Mohenjo-daro was left empty.

Rediscovery and excavation

The ruins of Mohenjo-daro were forgotten for about 3,700 years. In 1919–1920, an officer named R. D. Banerji visited the site and thought it might be an old Buddhist structure. This led to big excavations starting in 1924. Many experts took part in these digs over the years. After 1965, big excavations stopped because the old buildings were getting damaged by the weather. Since then, scientists have used careful methods to learn more about the site without digging up everything. In 2015, a drilling project showed that Mohenjo-daro is even bigger than what we can see today.

Architecture and urban infrastructure

Further information: Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation and Harappan architecture

Mohenjo-daro had a carefully planned layout with buildings arranged in straight lines on a grid. Most buildings were made from baked bricks, with some using sun-dried mud bricks and wood. The city covered about 300 hectares and may have had around 40,000 people.

The city was divided into two main parts: the Citadel and the Lower City. The Citadel, a high mud-brick area, had public baths, large rooms for many people, and big halls. The city had a central market and a large well. Homes had smaller wells for water, and waste was sent through covered drains along the streets. Some homes had special rooms for washing, and one even had an underground system that could heat water. Most homes had inner courtyards, and some were two stories tall.

In 1950, a large building was thought to be a storehouse for grain. Near it was a big public bath, called the Great Bath, with steps leading down to a waterproof pool that might have been used for cleaning or special rites. Other large buildings include a pillared hall, perhaps used for meetings, and a complex of rooms that might have been a home for leaders.

Archaeologists found the remains of walls that once surrounded Mohenjo-daro, along with guard towers and other defenses. The city’s many wells and drainage systems show that people planned carefully for water and cleaning. Large platforms may have helped protect against floods. Some believe the city was flooded several times and rebuilt, while others think small floods and using up the land slowly caused the city to be left.

Notable artefacts

Many interesting objects were found during excavations at Mohenjo-daro. These include seated and standing figures, copper and stone tools, carved seals, balance-scales and weights, gold and jasper jewellery, and children's toys. Archaeologists also found bronze and copper items like figurines and bowls, showing that people at Mohenjo-daro knew how to work with metals using special techniques. The site had areas where people made items from shells.

Pottery and pieces of baked clay, called sherds, were also found. Some of these pots had ash inside, suggesting they may have been used to hold remains or to keep a house warm.

The discoveries from Mohenjo-daro were first kept in the Lahore Museum. Later, they were split between India and Pakistan after the countries were divided. Some of the most famous items are now in museums in New Delhi and Karachi.

One famous find is a small figure that looks like a mother goddess, a common idea in early cultures. These figures often show women and may have been used in religious ceremonies.

Main article: Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)

Another well-known item is a small bronze statue called the "Dancing Girl." It is about 4,000 years old and shows a young woman in a dancing pose. This statue helps us learn that people in Mohenjo-daro enjoyed dance and knew how to work with metals.

Main article: Priest-King (sculpture)

Archaeologists found a seated man made of soapstone. Though we don’t know if he was a leader or priest, the figure looks very dignified. He wears a beard and has ornaments around his head.

Main article: Pashupati seal

A seal shows a figure sitting with legs crossed, surrounded by animals. Some think this figure might be an early version of a spiritual leader.

Sir Mortimer Wheeler was very interested in a special necklace with seven strands made of small bronze pieces. This necklace is very old and shows the skill of the people at Mohenjo-daro.

The people of Mohenjo-daro used rulers made of ivory to measure things. These rulers were very accurate and show that they had advanced ways to make and use tools long before today’s measuring systems.

Conservation and current state

An agreement to help protect Mohenjo-daro was made through the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization in Paris in 1980. Many countries helped with this project.

Work to protect the site stopped in 1996 but started again in 1997 with money from UNESCO. A plan gave $10 million over 20 years to guard the site from flooding. In 2011, the government of Sindh took charge of protecting the site.

Today, Mohenjo-daro faces problems from groundwater salinity and wrong restoration methods. Some walls have fallen down, and others are getting weaker. In 2012, experts warned that without better protection, the site might disappear by 2030.

In 2014, leaders planned a big event at the site, which could have harmed it. This caused concern among historians and educators, but the event went ahead anyway.

Climate

Mohenjo-daro has a hot desert climate with very hot summers and mild winters. The highest temperature ever recorded there was 53.5 °C, and the coldest was −5.4 °C.

Rainfall is low, mostly falling during the monsoon season from July to September. On average, the area gets about 100 millimetres of rain each year, but in 2022 it received over 1,000 millimetres, while in 1987 it had only 10 millimetres.