Nationalism

Nationalism is an idea or movement that says a nation and a government should be the same. It believes that people who share things like culture, language, or history should live together in their own country, ruled by their own leaders. Nationalism wants people to feel united and strong because they belong to the same nation.

This idea can mean different things to different people. Sometimes it helps people stand up for their rights and celebrate their traditions. Other times, it can lead to unfair treatment of others who are different and even cause conflicts.

Nationalism can fit with many different political beliefs, from conservative to socialist ideas. Whether people think nationalism is good or bad often depends on how it is used and what results it brings.

Terminology

The words "nations" and "sovereignty" were shaped by important writings from the early 1600s, especially by Hugo Grotius in his work De jure belli ac pacis. He lived during big wars in Europe, like the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands, and the Thirty Years' War among different religious groups. He helped define what a nation means.

By the 1700s and 1800s, talking about nations and who should rule became very important. More people could read and share ideas, and they believed that governments should come from the people they rule, not just kings or outside powers.

In the 1900s, these ideas were tested. Some leaders said they ruled for "the people" but took away freedoms and forced people to follow strict rules. This caused a lot of suffering and made many people careful about ideas that ignore the real wishes of different groups.

The word "nationalism" started being used around 1798 and became well-known in the 1800s. After 1914, it began to have more negative meanings. Glenda Sluga points out that the 20th century, a time when many lost faith in nationalism, was also when ideas about globalism grew stronger.

Academics describe nationalism as the belief that a nation and its government should match perfectly. Lisa Weeden says nationalist ideas assume that "the people" and the state are the same.

History

Further information: Nationalist historiography

In the late 1700s, ideas about people ruling themselves began to spread, especially after the French Revolution and the idea of self-determination. Three main theories explain how nationalism started:

1. Primordialism suggested nations have always existed, but most scholars think nations are created over time.
2. Modernization theory says nationalism grew because of changes like factories, cities, and schools, helping people feel connected as a nation. Nations are described as "imagined communities" where people share a common identity.
3. Ethnosymbolism focuses on symbols, stories, and traditions in creating nationalism, linked to the work of Anthony D. Smith.

Intellectual origins

Anthony D. Smith explains how thinkers helped shape ideas about nationalism by creating cultural views and ideologies. He talks about how challenges to old beliefs in the Age of Revolution led thinkers to find new ways to understand the world. The Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder emphasized the importance of language in forming national identity and encouraged a shared culture among separate German states.

Dating the emergence of nationalism

Historians often point to the late 1700s or early 1800s, like the American Declaration of Independence or the French Revolution, as when nationalism began, though some debate its earlier forms. The French Revolution was especially important for spreading nationalism across Europe. Ideas from thinkers like Rousseau and Voltaire influenced these changes, along with earlier movements like the Corsican Republic and American Revolution.

Because of the Industrial Revolution, new economies and public spaces formed, helping people in Britain feel more connected as a nation. National symbols, songs, and stories were created and shared widely. The political changes from the American and French revolutions increased the appeal of nationalism. Napoleon Bonaparte’s actions spread these ideas further across Europe.

19th century

Nationalism became a major political force in the 1800s, playing a key role in events like World War I. Napoleon’s invasions of Germany and Italy helped spark feelings of national unity. In France, nationalism grew strongly after the revolution and especially after losing territory in a war with Germany in 1871. French nationalists later focused on issues like the Dreyfus Affair.

Russia

Main article: Russian nationalism

Before 1815, Russian nationalism was weak, focusing mainly on loyalty to the tsar. The idea of "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality" became important, emphasizing support for the Russian Orthodox Church, loyalty to the House of Romanov, and pride in Russian identity. By the 1860s, a movement called pan-Slavism emerged, promoting Russian nationalism and support for other Slavic peoples.

Latin America

Main article: Spanish American wars of independence

In the 1810s and 1820s, nationalism led to revolutions in Latin America, where many colonies gained independence from Spain. The British navy had cut off Spain’s contact with its colonies, allowing new governments to form. Leaders from places like Caracas worked to end slavery and other old systems. The struggle was between leaders born in Spain and those born in the colonies, with the latter leading the push for independence.

Germany

Main article: German nationalism

In western Germany, Napoleon’s changes broke down old systems, creating new legal rules and promoting nationalism. Leaders like Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck unified Germany through successful wars, which excited nationalists in smaller states. They joined the new German Empire eagerly.

Italy

Main article: Italian nationalism

See also: Italian Fascism and Italian unification

Italian nationalism drove the unification of the country in 1861, bringing together many states into the Kingdom of Italy. However, the new government faced challenges, especially in the south, which was seen as less developed. Later, under leaders like Benito Mussolini, nationalism became aggressive and led to wars and hard times.

Spain

Main article: Spanish nationalism

After political changes in the early 1700s, Spain began forming a nation-state by bringing together different regions under one rule. This process continued into the 1800s, with efforts to create a uniform Spanish identity. During the 20th century, especially under dictators like Franco, nationalism took on a strong military and authoritarian tone.

Greece

Main article: Greek nationalism

In the early 1800s, inspired by ideas of the past, Greeks fought for independence from the Ottoman Empire. This effort gained support from countries like Britain, France, and Russia, who helped the Greeks succeed.

Serbia

Main article: Serbian nationalism

For centuries, Serbs were ruled by the Ottoman Empire. The Serbian Revolution in 1817 led to independence, first in practice in 1867 and officially in 1878. Serbia aimed to unite with nearby areas like Bosnia and old Serbian lands. Tensions rose, leading to conflicts that contributed to the start of World War I.

Poland

Main article: Polish nationalism

Poland was divided and ruled by other countries until after World War I. Nationalist feelings grew strong, especially after Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw. Revolts in 1830 and 1863 were crushed, but the idea of a Polish nation remained. After World War I, Poland became independent again.

Bulgaria

See also: Bulgarian irredentism

Further information: April Uprising of 1876, Bulgarian National Awakening, Bulgarian National Revival, and National awakening of Bulgaria

Bulgarian nationalism grew under Ottoman rule in the late 1700s and early 1800s, influenced by ideas from Western Europe. Leaders like Saint Paisius of Hilendar worked to revive Bulgarian culture and religion. By the late 1800s, Bulgaria gained independence.

Jewish nationalism

Jews in Western Europe gained more rights in the 1800s, but faced increased unfair treatment. In Eastern Europe, Jews suffered violent attacks called Pogroms, leading many to move to places like America or Western Europe. Some Jews, known as Zionists, believed a Jewish state was needed to solve these problems. In 1948, Israel was established as a Jewish state.

20th century

China

Main article: Chinese nationalism

As nationalism spread across Asia, China was influenced by events like Japan’s victory over Russia in 1905. Leader Sun Yat-sen started the Kuomintang party to challenge old rulers and promote new ideas. After the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, China moved toward a multi-ethnic nation under the idea of Zhonghua minzu.

Greece

Main article: Greek nationalism

Greek nationalist movements sought to unite ethnically Greek areas with Greece. The 4th of August regime, led by Ioannis Metaxas, was a nationalist dictatorship inspired by fascist ideas.

Africa

Main article: African nationalism

European powers controlled most of Africa until after World War II. Nationalism then led many African countries to independence in the 1950s and 1960s, though some faced long and difficult struggles.

South Africa gained independence earlier but was ruled by white nationalists who enforced strict separation until 1994 when free elections were held.

Middle East

Arab nationalism emerged in the late 1800s as Arabs sought independence from foreign rule. Countries like Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt became independent. The Zionist movement led to the creation of Israel in 1948.

Breakup of Yugoslavia

Main article: Breakup of Yugoslavia

After communism fell in the late 1980s and early 1990s, nationalism rose in Yugoslavia, leading to conflicts and the country’s breakup.

21st century

Nationalism and a desire for local control have grown in many places. In Europe and North America, groups like Germany’s Pegida and France’s National Front have gained support by focusing on limiting immigration. In Russia, nationalist ideas have helped leaders like Vladimir Putin maintain power. In India, Hindu nationalism has become more influential. Movements for independence, like in Catalonia, have also appeared. The rise of leaders like Donald Trump in the United States and Rodrigo Duterte in the Philippines reflect strong nationalistic views.

Political science

Many political scientists have studied how modern countries and the idea of being in charge of your own country work. They talk about how leaders and people agree to work together in what is called a "social contract." Some say a country is a group of people who agree to support each other and their leaders.

Scholars also look at how building countries, going to war, and feelings of being a nation all connect. Some believe that when a country feels threatened, people feel stronger ties to their nation. Others say that when colonial powers did not treat everyone equally, it led people to want their own independent countries.

Sociology

The sociological or modernist view of nationalism says that it grows in modern societies. These societies need an economy that can support itself, a strong central government, and a common language. Traditional societies usually don’t have these things, so nationalism doesn’t develop there. Thinkers like Carlton J. H. Hayes, Henry Maine, and Ferdinand Tönnies helped shape these ideas.

Henry Maine pointed out that older societies are based on family ties and roles, while modern societies are based on agreements people make to achieve their goals. Ferdinand Tönnies described older communities as close and emotional, while modern societies are more impersonal, which can make people feel isolated. Émile Durkheim added that older societies rely on shared customs, while modern societies depend on people working together in different jobs, even though this can also make people feel disconnected. Max Weber believed that strong leaders in modern societies help create national governments.

Primordialist evolutionary interpretation

The primordialist view sees nationalism as something that grows from how humans naturally feel connected to groups, like families or shared ancestors. This idea is popular but not widely accepted by experts. Some thinkers have linked these feelings to theories about how species change over time, but these ideas are often criticized for making big guesses without enough evidence.

Marxist interpretations

In their writing, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels talked about how workers don’t always feel tied to a country. Later, Joseph Stalin described a nation as a stable group of people who share a language, live in the same area, have similar economic lives, and share a culture.

Types

Main article: Types of nationalism

Historians, sociologists, and anthropologists have studied different kinds of nationalism since the 1930s. The most common way to group nationalism is by describing movements as either "civic" or "ethnic." This idea became popular in the 1950s by someone named Hans Kohn, who called "civic" nationalism "Western" and more democratic, while "ethnic" nationalism was "Eastern" and less democratic. Since the 1980s, scholars have found problems with this simple split and suggested more detailed classifications.

Anti-colonial

Anti-colonial nationalism is a way of thinking that came before, during, and after countries gained independence from rulers in the mid-1900s. Benedict Anderson described a nation as a group of people who imagine themselves as part of the same community. He pointed to places in the New World where nationalism first developed as a way to reject colonialism. This idea helped former colonies become their own nations, while anti-colonial nationalism focused on movements against colonial rulers in the 1900s.

Nationalist movements in French colonies in Africa and British colonies in India grew when colonial rulers refused to give rights to their educated subjects. These people formed new national identities that sometimes crossed old ethnic or language lines. Anti-colonial movements in Africa and Asia in the 1900s were led by people who shared identities and imagined a homeland without outside rule. Anderson suggested that racism linked to colonial rule wasn’t really about nationalism but about class theories.

Anti-colonial nationalism changes based on where it happens. In India, leaders like Mahatma Gandhi argued for a nationalism that didn’t focus on religion. However, tensions led to India being split into two countries in 1947 based on religion. Because colonialism drew borders that cut across ethnic and religious groups, anti-colonial nationalism often started with a focus on land. After independence, smaller movements sometimes formed to seek their own independence too.

Philosopher Achille Mbembe says that post-colonialism is tricky because colonialism always leaves its mark. Anti-colonial nationalism continued into the late 20th century with resistance in Soviet satellite states and still exists today in movements across the Arab world.

Civic and liberal

Main article: Civic nationalism

Civic nationalism sees the nation as a group of people who choose to belong together, share equal political rights, and follow the same political rules. Unlike ethnic nationalism, civic nationalism doesn’t depend on shared ancestry. Ernest Renan described a nation as a "daily referendum," meaning it depends on the people’s choice to stay together.

Civic nationalism is often linked with liberal ideas like freedom, fairness, and individual rights. Thinkers like Ernest Renan and John Stuart Mill are seen as early supporters of liberal nationalism. Civic nationalism fits well with long-standing states made up of many different groups. It helped shape democratic governments in countries like the United States and France.

Creole

Main article: Creole nationalism

Creole nationalism grew among descendants of colonizers in Latin America in the early 1800s. When Napoleon took control of Spain and Portugal, local leaders in these areas rejected loyalty to France and sought independence, achieving it after wars from 1808 to 1826.

Ethnic

See also: Ethnic nationalism

Ethnic nationalism defines a nation based on shared heritage, like common language, faith, and ancestry. It also includes shared culture and history. While nationalism itself doesn’t mean believing one group is better, some nationalists do support ideas of superiority or protection for their group. This led some minority groups in big countries to focus on their own culture, especially language and religion, to feel proud and separate.

Economic

Main article: Economic nationalism

Economic nationalism is the belief that a country should control its own economy, even if it means putting limits on trade, labor, and money moving in and out. This can include taxes and rules to protect local businesses.

Gendered and muscular

Ideas about men and women shape how people think about nations. Nations are sometimes seen as female, needing protection, while the idea of defending them is seen as a masculine duty. This can influence how people behave and relate to each other in society.

Integral, pan and irredentism

Main articles: Integral nationalism, Irredentism, and Pan-nationalism

There are many kinds of nationalism. Some focus on building a strong state after gaining independence, like in Italy and Germany in the 1800s. Others, like in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, became very extreme. Pan-nationalism tries to unite large groups of people, like the Slavic peoples.

Left-wing

Main article: Left-wing nationalism

Left-wing nationalism mixes ideas about fairness and equality with a strong sense of national pride. Many movements use nationalism to fight for freedom from other countries. Examples include movements in Cuba, Cornwall, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and many places in Eastern Europe.

National-anarchism

Main article: National-anarchism

National-anarchism started in Europe in the 1990s and has spread worldwide. It mixes ideas about no government with strong beliefs about ethnic groups staying separate. Supporters want small, separate communities for each group but still aim for fairness and tradition.

Nativist

See also: Nativism (politics)

Nativist nationalism says that only people born in a country truly belong there. In places with strong nativist views, people born elsewhere are seen as less important, even if they become citizens.

Racial

Main article: Racial nationalism

Racial nationalism ties national identity to a person’s race. This can mean trying to keep races separate and stopping people from different races from moving in. This often clashes with ideas about fairness and including everyone.

Religious

Main article: Religious nationalism

Religious nationalism links a nation’s identity to a shared religion. This can help unite people but sometimes causes tension when different religions are involved. Examples include nationalism linked to Islam in countries like Saudi Arabia and Iran.

Territorial

Main article: Territorial nationalism

Some nationalists think only people who fit certain ethnic, language, or religious groups truly belong to a nation. They may feel strongly about protecting their homeland. Territorial nationalists believe everyone in a country should support it, and they value shared culture and traditions.

Sport

Big sports events like the World Cup bring people together to support their country. Teams and fans often feel very proud, and these events can create strong feelings of unity and loyalty. Sports have been used by countries to build connections and show pride, like in the British Empire and French colonies.

Criticism

Critics of nationalism wonder what really makes a nation, or if a nation should even be its own country. Nationalism can create problems when different groups want the same land or power.

Some thinkers say nationalism can be unfair because it might ignore differences between people or let leaders control everyone. Others point out that nationalism has sometimes led to wars and violence between countries. Famous thinkers like Albert Einstein have called nationalism a problem, seeing it as a childish way of thinking.