New Kingdom of Egypt

The New Kingdom, also called the Egyptian Empire, was a time in ancient Egypt between the 16th century BC and the 11th century BC. This period includes the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth dynasties. It was the richest and most powerful time for ancient Egypt, with the country reaching its highest point of strength.

In 1845, a German scholar named Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen first used the term "New Kingdom" to describe this golden age of Egypt. Later, especially under the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties, this time is also called the Ramesside period, named after the many kings called Ramesses, including the famous Ramesses II.

Because of foreign rule during an earlier time, the New Kingdom saw Egypt grow larger than ever before. The rulers expanded into areas known as the Levant, Nubia, and the Near East, making Egypt one of the biggest empires of the ancient world.

History

Rise

Main article: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt

The Eighteenth Dynasty included some of Egypt's most famous kings, such as Ahmose I, Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun.

Ahmose I is seen as the founder of the eighteenth dynasty. He continued the battles of his father Seqenenre Tao and Kamose against the Hyksos until he reunited the country. Ahmose then continued to fight in the Levant, the home of the Hyksos, to prevent any future attacks on Egypt.

Ahmose was followed by Amenhotep I, who fought in Nubia and was followed by Thutmose I. Thutmose I fought in the Levant and reached as far as the Euphrates, becoming the first pharaoh to cross the river. During this battle, the Syrian princes said they would follow Thutmose. However, after he returned, they stopped giving gifts and started building stronger defenses.

Hatshepsut was one of the most powerful pharaohs of this dynasty. She was the daughter of Thutmose I and the royal wife of Thutmose II. After her husband died, she ruled together with his son Thutmose III, who became king as a child of about two years old, but she eventually ruled on her own. Hatshepsut built many structures in the Karnak temple in Luxor and throughout Egypt and she re-established the trade networks that had been disrupted during the Hyksos rule of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, building the wealth of the Eighteenth Dynasty. She oversaw preparations and funding for a mission to the Land of Punt. After her death, Thutmose III took control.

Thutmose III expanded Egypt's army and used it successfully to strengthen the empire made by his predecessors. This led to a peak in Egypt's power and wealth during the rule of Amenhotep III. The word pharaoh, originally the name of the king's palace, became a way to address the king during his rule (around 1479–1425 BC).

Thutmose III is known for his military skill. He fought at least 16 battles in 20 years. He captured 350 cities during his rule and conquered much of the Near East from the Euphrates to Nubia during seventeen known military campaigns. He was the first pharaoh after Thutmose I to cross the Euphrates, doing so during his battle against Mitanni. He moved north through the lands of the still unconquered cities of Aleppo and Carchemish and quickly crossed the Euphrates in his boats, surprising the Mitannian king.

The wealthiest king of this dynasty is Amenhotep III, who built the Luxor Temple, the Precinct of Monthu at Karnak and his large Mortuary Temple. Amenhotep III also built the Malkata palace, the largest built in Egypt.

One of the best-known eighteenth dynasty pharaohs is Amenhotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten to honor the Aten, a symbol of the Egyptian god, Ra. His worship of the Aten as his main god is often seen as history's first example of monotheism. Akhenaten's wife, Nefertiti, helped with his new direction in Egyptian religion. Nefertiti was brave enough to take part in rituals for Aten. Akhenaten's strong focus on religion is often why he and his wife were later removed from Egyptian history. During his rule, in the fourteenth century BC, Egyptian art grew in a new and unique style (see Amarna Period).

By the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Egypt's position had changed greatly. With Akhenaten not seeming very interested in foreign matters, the Hittites had slowly increased their influence into the Levant to become a major power in world politics—a power that both Seti I and his son Ramesses II would face during the nineteenth Dynasty.

The last two members of the Eighteenth Dynasty—Ay and Horemheb—became rulers from among officials in the royal court, though Ay might also have been the maternal uncle of Akhenaten and a relative of Yuya and Tjuyu.

Ay may have married the widowed Great Royal Wife and young half-sister of Tutankhamun, Ankhesenamun, to gain power; she did not live long after. Ay then married Tey, who had originally been a nurse to Nefertiti.

Ay's rule was short. His successor was Horemheb, a general during the rule of Tutankhamun, whom the pharaoh may have planned as his successor if he had no surviving children, which happened. Horemheb may have taken the throne from Ay in a quick change of power. Although Ay's son or stepson Nakhtmin was named as his father or stepfather's Crown Prince, Nakhtmin seems to have died during the rule of Ay, allowing Horemheb to claim the throne next.

Horemheb also died without children, naming his advisor, Pa-ra-mes-su, as his heir. This advisor became king in 1292 BC as Ramesses I, and was the first pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty.

Height of power

Main article: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt

The Nineteenth Dynasty began with the Vizier Ramesses I, chosen as successor by the last ruler of the eighteenth dynasty, Pharaoh Horemheb. His short rule was a transition between the rule of Horemheb and the powerful pharaohs of this dynasty, especially his son Seti I and grandson Ramesses II, who would bring Egypt to new heights of imperial power.

Seti I fought a series of battles in western Asia, Libya, and Nubia in the first ten years of his rule. The main source of information about Seti's military activities comes from his battle scenes on the north outside wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall, along with several royal stones with writings about battles in Canaan and Nubia. The greatest success of Seti's foreign policy was capturing the Syrian town of Kadesh and nearby land of Amurru from the Hittite Empire. Egypt had not held Kadesh since the time of Akhenaten. Seti I was successful in defeating a Hittite army that tried to defend the town and put up a victory stone at the site which has been found by archaeologists. Kadesh, however, soon went back to Hittite control because the Egyptians did not or could not keep a permanent military force in Kadesh and Amurru, which were close to the Hittite homelands.

Ramesses II wanted to take back lands in the Levant that had been held by the 18th Dynasty. In his second year, before fighting the Hittites, Ramesses II had to deal with a raid by the Sherden sea people whom he defeated and added to his army. His battles against the Hittites ended in the Battle of Kadesh, where he led Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Ramesses was caught in history's first known military surprise attack, but he was able to regroup his troops and turn the battle against the Hittites thanks to the arrival of the Ne'arin (possibly workers for Egypt). The result of the battle was unclear, with both sides claiming victory at home, and it ended in a peace agreement between the two governments. He later fought in the Levant capturing Edom and Moab. New kingdom Egyptian stones from this time have been found in Jordan. Later, Egyptians conquered Qatna and Tunip where a statue of Ramses II was placed. Thus he took back Qadesh and northern Amurru. Still, like Seti I, he found that he could not keep lands so far from home and after years of fighting, a peace agreement was made between the two states. Egypt gained wealth and stability under the rule of Ramesses, for more than half a century. His next rulers continued the military campaigns, though an increasingly troubled court—which at one point put a challenger (Amenmesse) on the throne—made it harder for a pharaoh to keep control of the lands.

Ramesses II built widely across Egypt and Nubia, and his cartouches are shown everywhere, even in buildings he did not construct. There are records of his respect carved in stone, statues, and the remains of palaces and temples—most notably the Ramesseum in western Thebes and the rock temples of Abu Simbel. He covered the land from the Delta to Nubia with buildings like no king before him. He also founded a new capital city in the Delta during his rule, called Pi-Ramesses. It had earlier served as a summer palace during the rule of Seti I.

Ramesses II built many large monuments, including the archaeological complex of Abu Simbel, and the Mortuary temple known as the Ramesseum. He built on a huge scale to make sure his legacy would last through time. Ramesses used art to show his victories over foreigners, which are shown on many temple carvings. Ramesses II put up more huge statues of himself than any other pharaoh, and also took over many existing statues by adding his own name on them.

Ramesses II was also known for the large number of children he had with his various wives and concubines; the tomb he built for his sons (many of whom he lived longer than) in the Valley of the Kings is the largest burial place in Egypt.

Civil war

Main article: End of the 19th Dynasty

The rulers after Ramesses II continued the military campaigns though an increasingly troubled court made things harder. He was followed by his son Merneptah and then by Merneptah's son Seti II. Seti II's right to the throne may have been challenged by his half-brother Amenmesse, who may have temporarily ruled from Thebes.

After his death, Seti II's son Siptah, who may have had poliomyelitis during his life, was put on the throne by Bay, a leader and a West Asian commoner who served as advisor behind the scenes. Siptah died early and the throne was taken by Twosret, who was the royal wife of his father and, possibly, his uncle Amenmesse's sister.

A time of disorder at the end of Twosret's short rule saw the beginning of Setnakhte, starting the Twentieth Dynasty.

Final years

Main article: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt

The last "great" pharaoh from the New Kingdom is generally considered to be Ramesses III, a Twentieth Dynasty pharaoh who ruled several decades after Ramesses II.

In the eighth year of his rule, the Sea Peoples attacked Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two major land and sea battles (the Battle of Djahy and the Battle of the Delta). He made them his subjects and is thought to have settled them in Southern Canaan, though there is evidence they moved into Canaan on their own. Their presence in Canaan may have helped create new states, such as the Philistian pentapolis, in this area after the fall of the Egyptian Empire (during the rule of Ramses III himself, Egyptian control in the Levant is still recorded as far as Byblos). He later had to fight invading Libyan tribes in two major battles in Egypt's Western Delta in his sixth year and eleventh year respectively.

The heavy cost of this fighting slowly weakened Egypt's treasury and led to the slow fall of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. The seriousness of the problems is shown by the fact that the first known worker strike in history happened during the twenty-ninth year of Ramesses III's rule. At that time, the food supplies for Egypt's respected and chosen royal tomb-builders and workers in the village of Deir el Medina could not be given. Air pollution limited the amount of sunlight reaching the atmosphere, affecting farming and stopping global tree growth for almost two full decades, until 1140 BC. One suggested cause is the Hekla 3 eruption of the Hekla volcano in Iceland, but the timing of this remains uncertain.

Near the end of Ramesses III's rule, one of his second wives tried to kill the king in her attempt to put her son on the throne. Workers in the palace, women in the palace, government workers, and army officers were part of the plan. A special group of 12 judges was formed to try the people accused who were sentenced to death. Written records show that the attempt failed and that the people involved were tried. However, it is not clear from the records whether Ramses survived the attack. The king's body showed no visible injuries, and questions about his end were left open for many years. In 2012, scientists said that a CT scan had found a deep knife wound in the body's throat, showing that Ramesses was indeed killed by the people involved. He died in Thebes in the 32nd year of his rule and was followed by Crown Prince Ramesses IV.

A number of attacks by the Libyans and the Sea Peoples, more dangerous than those during the rule of Ramses III, weakened the kingdom more. This increased the power of the priests of Amon, which finally led to the great priests taking control of the throne.

Decline into the Third Intermediate Period

Ramesses III's death was followed by years of disagreement among his heirs. Three of his sons became king one after the other as Ramesses IV, Rameses VI, and Rameses VIII. Egypt was increasingly troubled by droughts, low flooding of the Nile, hunger, unrest, and corruption of leaders. The power of the last king of the dynasty, Ramesses XI, grew so weak that in the south the High Priests of Amun at Thebes became the actual rulers of Upper Egypt, and Smendes controlled Lower Egypt in the north, even before Rameses XI's death. Smendes eventually started the twenty-first dynasty at Tanis.