Peloponnesian War

The Peloponnesian War was a long and important conflict fought in the Eastern Mediterranean between the Athenian-led Delian League and the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League from 431 to 404 BC. The war was about which group would have the most power over Ancient Greece. It began when the Spartan king Archidamus II invaded the region of Attica, and it included several phases of fighting over many years.

The war had many parts, including a period called the Ten Years' War, a conflict in Argos called the Argive War, and a big mistake when Athens tried to conquer Syracuse in Sicily. Eventually, with help from the Persian Empire, Sparta was able to defeat Athens. After the war, Athens lost its power, and Sparta became the leading city in Greece for a time.

This war changed life in ancient Greece forever. Many cities were destroyed, and both Athens and the areas controlled by Sparta suffered from poor economies. The fighting also became more total and harsher than before, showing deep divisions between different ways of governing. These changes helped set the stage for later times when outside forces would control parts of Greece.

Historic sources

The main source for learning about the Peloponnesian War is a book called The History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides. Thucydides was an Athenian who fought early in the war and later wrote about it. He tried to give a fair and detailed account, though some parts, like speeches, were his own interpretation. His book stops before the war ended.

Another writer, Xenophon, continued the story in his book Hellenica. He was from Athens but lived in Sparta later and wrote about how the war ended. Other writers, like Diodorus Siculus and Plutarch, also wrote about the war, adding more details from earlier works that we no longer have. We also learn from old buildings, artworks, and writings that survived, giving us a picture of everyday life during the war.

Prelude

Thucydides explained that as Athens grew more powerful, Sparta became worried, making war almost certain. For about 50 years before the big war, Athens had become a strong city. It started with a group of city-states called the Delian League, formed after fighting the Greco-Persian Wars. After beating back attacks from Persia, Athens led other Greek cities to attack Persian lands. During this time, called the Pentecontaetia, Athens became like an empire, controlling many places and building up its navy.

Tensions rose between Athens and Sparta and its friends. Once, Sparta asked Athens not to rebuild its walls, but Athens refused. Later, when there was a big problem in Sparta, Athens helped but was sent away. This made Athens and Sparta stop being friends. Small fights happened, like when Athens made an alliance with Megara, leading to the First Peloponnesian War. Finally, they signed the Thirty Years' Peace, agreeing to stay out of each other’s ways. But problems kept happening, like when Athens and Corinth argued over sea battles and when Athens asked a town called Potidaea to take down its walls. These events helped push both sides toward war.

Archidamian War (431–421 BC)

The first years of the Peloponnesian War are called the Archidamian War, named after Sparta's king Archidamus II. It began when the Thebans attacked an Athenian outpost at Plataea in 431 BC. Sparta’s strength was on land, with powerful armies, while Athens relied on its navy and wealth from islands in the Aegean Sea. Because of this, they struggled to fight each other directly.

Athens was led by a wise leader named Pericles, who advised avoiding big land battles and using the navy instead. However, a terrible sickness spread through Athens, causing many deaths including Pericles. After his death, Athens became more aggressive under leaders like Cleon and a clever general named Demosthenes. They attacked Spartan lands and even trapped some Spartan soldiers on an island, shocking many because Spartans were thought to be unbeatable. Later, a Spartan general named Brasidas captured an important Athenian town, leading to more fighting until both sides agreed to a truce.

Peace of Nicias (421 BC)

Main article: Peace of Nicias

After the deaths of two strong leaders who wanted to keep fighting, a peace agreement called the Peace of Nicias was made. This peace lasted for six years, but small fights still happened around the Peloponnese area. Some of Sparta's allies started thinking about breaking away, with help from Argos, a strong nearby city that stayed independent. With support from Athens, Argos and other cities formed a group to stand together.

The big battle at Mantinea was one of the largest fights in Greece during this time. Many cities joined forces against Sparta, but they did not use their early advantages well. Sparta's strong soldiers won the battle, breaking the group of cities apart and keeping their control over the area.

During a pause in fighting, Athens went to the island of Melos and asked them to join their side. When Melos refused, Athens surrounded the city until it fell. After that, many of the people were taken away from their homes.

Sicilian Expedition (415–413 BC)

Main article: Sicilian Expedition

In the 17th year of the Peloponnesian War, Athens learned that one of their allies in Sicily was under attack by Syracuse, the largest city on the island. The Athenians decided to help their ally and even hoped to conquer all of Sicily, which would give them many resources. The leader of this mission, Alcibiades, was later accused of a serious crime and fled to Sparta, where he warned them that Athens planned to use Sicily as a base to attack Italy and Carthage.

The Athenian fleet, with over 100 ships and thousands of soldiers, landed in Sicily. However, they faced strong resistance from Syracuse and their allies, including troops sent by Sparta. After many battles, the Athenian forces were defeated. A lunar eclipse delayed their retreat, and they were finally overwhelmed in a big sea battle. The remaining Athenian soldiers were captured or forced to join the enemy. This defeat was a major blow to Athens in the war.

Second War (413–404 BC)

The Spartans wanted to attack Athens more directly. They built a fort at Decelea near Athens, which stopped the Athenians from using their land for supplies. This made life very hard for the people of Athens.

The Athenians had sent many soldiers and ships to fight in Sicily but were defeated badly. After this loss, many thought Athens might fall. However, Athens fought back. They used some ships they had saved for emergencies and won several battles. Leaders like Alcibiades helped bring back support for Athens.

From 414 BC, the ruler of the Achaemenid Empire, Darius II, became worried about Athenian power in the Aegean Sea. After Athens lost in Sicily, Darius II ordered his commanders to support Sparta against Athens. This support helped Sparta in the war.

Later, Darius II sent his son Cyrus the Younger to help Sparta more strongly. Cyrus worked with the Spartan general Lysander, giving him money and support. This help from Cyrus was important for Sparta’s final victory over Athens.

Athenian defeat

After a small Spartan victory at the battle of Notium in 406 BC, Alcibiades was not re-elected as a general and left Athens, never to lead them again. Although Athens won at the battle of Arginusae, losing only 25 ships compared to the Spartans' 70, bad weather stopped them from rescuing their own crew or finishing off the enemy. This led to anger in Athens and a controversial trial where six top naval commanders were executed.

The new Spartan general, Lysander, was very skilled in naval battles and diplomacy. He worked with Cyrus the Younger, son of Emperor Darius II, to cut off Athens’s supply of grain by moving to the Dardanelles. In 405 BC, Lysander trapped and destroyed most of the Athenian fleet at the Battle of Aegospotami, leaving Athens weak and hungry. By April 25, 404 BC, Athens surrendered. The city lost its walls, fleet, and overseas lands. Though some suggested destroying Athens, the Spartans decided instead to bring it into their system, requiring Athens to share the same friends and enemies as Sparta.

Aftermath

After the war ended, Sparta took control of the places Athens used to rule. Athens was briefly ruled by a strict group set up by Sparta, but later returned to being a democracy.

Though Athens lost its power, it still took part in Greek affairs. Sparta tried to help Greek cities near the Persian Empire, but this led to more fighting. Eventually, Thebes defeated Sparta, and later Macedon became the strongest force in Greece, uniting most of it under one rule.

In 1996, the leaders of Athens and Sparta signed a symbolic peace agreement almost 2,400 years after the war.