Peninsular War

The Peninsular War lasted from 1808 to 1814 and was fought in the Iberian Peninsula by Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom against the forces of the First French Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. It began when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, but it truly began in 1808 after Napoleonic France occupied Spain, which had been its ally. Napoleon forced the abdications of Ferdinand VII and his father Charles IV and installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. Most Spaniards rejected French rule and fought a long and difficult war to remove them.

The war is considered one of the first wars of national liberation and featured large-scale guerrilla warfare. In 1808, the Spanish army defeated the French at the Battle of Bailén, the first open-field defeat of Napoleon’s army on a European battlefield. A national government, the Cortes, formed in Cádiz in 1810 and, with help from the British army under Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, defended Portugal and attacked the French. In 1812, as Napoleon invaded Russia, the allied forces defeated the French at Salamanca and took Madrid. The final major battle was the Battle of Vitoria in 1813, which led to the French being pushed back across the Pyrenees. The war drained French resources and helped other European nations challenge Napoleon, leading to his eventual defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition.

Although France was eventually defeated and never again threatened a full invasion of Spain, the war caused great damage to the social and economic structures of both Portugal and Spain. It also led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and sparked civil wars and political instability in Iberia, as well as independence movements in Spanish America.

1807

Extortion of Portugal

The Treaties of Tilsit were made in July 1807 between Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon. This ended the War of the Fourth Coalition. Napoleon was upset that Portugal still traded with Britain. Portugal was Britain’s oldest friend in Europe. Britain also used Portugal’s port of Lisbon for its navy, and Napoleon did not want this.

Napoleon quickly gave orders. He told his Foreign Minister to tell Portugal to fight Britain, close its ports to British ships, and take goods from British people staying there. Soon after, a large French army was ready to move. Portugal refused to change its mind, so Napoleon used this as an excuse. He sent his general, Jean-Andoche Junot, with an army to march into Portugal.

At the same time, France and Spain made a secret deal called the Treaty of Fontainebleau. They planned to split Portugal into three parts. One part would go to a Spanish prince, another to a Spanish leader, and the third would be controlled by France. Junot’s army was to be helped by Spanish soldiers. On October 12, Junot’s troops entered Spain on their way to Portugal.

Spanish dilemma

Spain was not happy at this time. Many people were upset about changes to where their families could be buried. In Madrid, there were two different groups. Some people, called afrancesados, liked French ways. Others, called majos, preferred old Spanish styles and often fought with the French-style people.

Spain was an ally of Napoleon’s France, but after losing many ships in the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, Spain wanted to change this. A leader of Spain named Manuel Godoy tried to find a way out of the alliance. But Napoleon became suspicious and planned to deal with Spain later. In the meantime, Napoleon made Spain send some soldiers to help in northern Europe.

Invasion of Portugal

Main article: Invasion of Portugal (1807)

Napoleon told Junot to lead his troops to invade Portugal, moving west from Alcántara along the Tagus River. On November 19, 1807, Junot’s soldiers reached Lisbon on November 30.

The prince who ruled for Spain’s queen, Prince John, escaped to Brazil with his family, important papers, and treasure. He sailed away on November 29 with British ships protecting him. Many other rich people left too. Junot took goods from those who fled and made Portugal pay a huge amount of money. He tried to keep his soldiers calm, but many Portuguese people were very angry about the heavy taxes and harsh rules. By January 1808, some people who resisted were executed. The unrest could burst into open revolt with just the right spark.

1808

Coup d'état

Between February 9 and 12, French soldiers moved into Spain and Portugal, taking over places like Navarre and Catalonia. The Spanish government was unhappy and pulled their troops out of Portugal. Some Spanish leaders let the French soldiers into their forts, while others fought back. One French general was trapped in Barcelona and couldn’t leave until January 1809.

On February 20, a French leader was put in charge of all French soldiers in Spain. By March 19, the king of Spain was forced to give up his throne, and his son became king. But then, under pressure from France, both kings gave up their claims, and France’s leader put his brother Joseph as the new king of Spain.

Iberia in revolt

On May 2, people in Madrid fought against the French soldiers. The French fought back hard, and many people were hurt or killed. Fighting broke out all over Spain against the French and their supporters. Towns like Cartagena, Valencia, Zaragoza, and Murcia all rose up against the French. Even Portugal rebelled in June.

The French sent more soldiers to Spain to try to control the country. They held a narrow strip of land from north to south, but many areas were still fighting back.

Conventional warfare

French generals moved their soldiers to attack different parts of Spain. In some places, local Spanish fighters beat back the French troops. One big battle happened at Bailén, where the French were surprised and forced to give up their whole army group. This was a big win for the Spanish and showed that the French could be beaten.

British intervention

Britain sent soldiers to help Spain fight the French. In August 1808, British troops landed in Portugal and beat the French soldiers there. Later, another British general took over, but there were problems with planning and supplies.

Napoleon's invasion of Spain

After the French loss at Bailén, Napoleon decided to take control himself. He brought a huge army into Spain and quickly beat the Spanish forces. Madrid fell in December, and Joseph Bonaparte was put back on the throne as king.

Corunna campaign, 1808–1809

The British army, led by Moore, tried to help the Spanish but was forced to retreat. Moore’s soldiers fought their way back to the coast at Corunna, where they escaped by ship. Moore was killed in the battle, but most of the British soldiers made it back to Britain. The French took over many important towns in northern Spain.

1809

Spanish campaign, early 1809

Fall of Zaragoza

Zaragoza was already damaged from attacks earlier that year when it came under attack again in December. French forces, led by Lannes and Moncey, had 45,000 soldiers and many cannons. The Spanish defenders fought very bravely, even burning their own buildings, but many became sick or starving. After months of fighting, the Spanish ran out of strength and had to give up the city in February 1809. Many people had died in the battle.

First Madrid offensive

The Spanish leaders took charge of their war effort and made plans to take back Madrid. However, their army was defeated badly in a battle at Uclés in January. Later, French forces led by Victor and Sébastiani also won battles against Spanish troops at Ciudad Real and Medellín, capturing many soldiers.

Liberation of Galicia

In March, Spanish forces beat the French at Vigo and took back most cities in Pontevedra. In June, Spanish troops under Pablo Morillo defeated French Marshal Ney at Ponte Sampaio, forcing him to pull back to Lugo. By July, French forces had left Galicia completely.

French advance in Catalonia

French general Saint-Cyr won against Spanish forces at Valls in February and began to attack Girona, which finally fell in December. Another French general, Suchet, also won several battles against Spanish troops in May and June.

Second Portuguese campaign

After leaving the city of Corunna, French general Soult turned to attack Portugal. In January, he captured the naval base at Ferrol and many ships and weapons. In March, Soult invaded Portugal and quickly took the fortress at Chaves. He then moved to Braga, where his well-trained soldiers defeated an unprepared Portuguese army. At the First Battle of Porto in March, the Portuguese defenders were overcome, and Soult took control of the city.

British general Wellesley arrived in Portugal in April with extra troops, including Portuguese soldiers who had been trained. They pushed Soult out of Portugal in battles at Grijó and the Second Battle of Porto in May. Soult withdrew to Spain, leaving Portugal in Allied hands.

Spanish campaign, late 1809

Talavera campaign

With Portugal secure, Wellesley moved into Spain to join forces with Spanish general Cuesta. After some back-and-forth fighting, the two armies faced the French at the Battle of Talavera in July. Both sides suffered heavy losses, and Wellesley decided to pull back to Portugal due to lack of supplies and the threat of more French troops arriving.

Second Madrid offensive

In the summer of 1809, Spanish leaders planned a big attack to take back Madrid using three armies. One part led by Del Parque won a battle at Tamames and took Salamanca, but later had to leave after French reinforcements arrived. Another part led by Aréizaga was crushed by Soult at Ocaña in November, losing many soldiers. The third part gave up its efforts. Del Parque tried to move toward Madrid again but was attacked and defeated by French forces at Alba de Tormes in November, forcing him to retreat far away.

1810

Joseph I's régime

Main article: Spain under Joseph Bonaparte

Joseph worked within the existing government system, putting local control in the hands of royal commissioners. By July 1809, Spain was split into 38 new areas, each led by a special leader chosen by King Joseph. In April 1810, these areas became French-style local governments.

Some wealthy people accepted French rule. The artist Francisco de Goya stayed in Madrid and recorded the war. Many liberal and republican Spaniards supported the French at first, but most soon opposed the occupation due to its violence and harshness.

Emergence of the guerrilla

Main article: Guerrilla warfare in the Peninsular War

The Peninsular War is known for the start of large-scale guerrilla fighting. These small, mobile groups of fighters troubled French soldiers. The guerrilla fighters sometimes scared their own people by taking things and forcing people to join them. Some were just trying to escape trouble or get rich. Later, many joined regular army units.

Fighting like this was very effective for the Spanish. Most big battles ended in defeat for the Spanish, but when they fought as guerrillas, they could tie down many French troops across a wide area, helping British and Portuguese forces win bigger battles and free Portugal and Spain.

Revolution under siege

Further information: Siege of Cádiz

In January 1810, French troops moved into southern Spain. Spanish forces were pushed back, and many towns fell to the French. This led to big changes in Spain. The leaders in Seville moved to Cádiz and set up a new government called the Regency Council. They created the Cortes of Cádiz, which made a new law for Spain.

Cádiz was well-protected, and British ships helped keep it safe. The city held out against French attacks. After Cádiz was safe, the new government started planning changes. They decided that men over 25 could vote and choose leaders for the Cortes.

Third Portuguese campaign

Further information: Lines of Torres Vedras

To defend against a new French attack, the British leader Wellington built strong defenses near Lisbon called the Lines of Torres Vedras. These included forts, small strong points, and artillery positions. The work started in 1809 and was finished just in time.

Before the French could attack, one of their leaders took a Spanish town. The French then moved into Portugal with a large army, led by Marshal Masséna. They fought the British and Portuguese forces, but the French could not break through the strong defenses. Masséna’s army suffered from lack of food and supplies and eventually had to pull back.

1811

Stalemate in the west

In 1811, the French army led by Victor became weaker because General Soult asked for help to attack Badajoz. This made the French numbers drop to between 20,000 and 15,000 soldiers. This gave hope to the people defending Cádiz, who tried to break out with help from a group of around 12,000 soldiers from Spain and Britain, led by Spanish General Manuel La Peña and British Lieutenant-General Thomas Graham. They marched towards Cádiz in February and won against two French groups led by Victor at Barrosa. However, they did not follow up their win, and Victor soon started blocking Cádiz again.

From January to March 1811, Soult led 20,000 soldiers to attack and take the strong towns of Badajoz and Olivenza in Extremadura, capturing 16,000 prisoners. He then returned to Andalusia with most of his army. Soult had to move quickly because he learned that a Spanish army under Francisco Ballesteros was threatening Seville, Victor had been defeated at Barrosa, and another French general, Masséna, had left Portugal.

In March 1811, Masséna left Portugal because they ran out of supplies and went back to Salamanca. Later that month, General Wellington began attacking again. An army of British and Portuguese soldiers led by William Beresford and Spanish generals Joaquín Blake and Francisco Castaños tried to take back Badajoz by surrounding the French soldiers left there by Soult. Soult brought his army back to help his trapped soldiers. Beresford stopped the attack, and his army met Soult’s moving army at the Battle of Albuera. Soult outsmarted Beresford but could not win the battle, so he went back to Seville.

In April, Wellington surrounded Almeida. Masséna came to help Almeida and fought Wellington at Fuentes de Oñoro from May 3 to 5. Both sides said they won, but the British kept blocking Almeida, and the French left without being attacked. After this battle, the soldiers in Almeida escaped at night. Masséna had to leave Portugal after losing 25,000 soldiers, and he was replaced by Auguste Marmont. Wellington joined Beresford and started attacking Badajoz again. Marmont joined Soult with more soldiers, and Wellington moved away.

Wellington then showed up at Ciudad Rodrigo. In September, Marmont stopped him and restocked the town. Soldiers kept leaving Cádiz from April to August 1811, and British boats destroyed French positions at St. Mary’s. Victor tried to defeat the small group of British and Spanish soldiers at Tarifa in winter 1811–1812, but heavy rain and strong defence stopped him. This marked the end of French attacks on the outer defences of the city.

French conquest of Aragon and Catalonia

In January 1811, the French army in Aragon, led by General Suchet, took the town of Tortosa from Spanish forces in Catalonia after a two-week attack. Another French general, MacDonald, was defeated in a small fight at El Pla but chose to move his soldiers to Montblanc instead of fighting back.

A Spanish commander, Francesc Rovira, took the important Sant Ferran Castle at Figueres on April 10 with 2,000 local soldiers called miquelets. The French Army of Catalonia surrounded the city to force the defenders to give up by cutting off food. With help arriving on May 3, the castle held out until August 17 when they had to surrender because there was no more food.

In May, Suchet attacked the important city of Tarragona, which was a port and a base for Spanish soldiers. The city fell to a surprise attack in June. Later, Suchet pushed Spanish soldiers out of the Montserrat mountains in July. In October, Spanish forces fought back, took back Montserrat, and captured 1,000 French soldiers. Suchet also attacked the area of Valencia, capturing several places, including Sagunto and the city of Valencia by January 1812. However, his operations slowed down when many of his soldiers were sent to fight in Russia. Suchet had success in Aragon but faced growing resistance from Spanish guerrilla fighters.

1812

Allied campaign in Spain

Wellington led the allied forces into Spain in early 1812. He captured the town of Ciudad Rodrigo on 19 January, opening a path from Portugal into Spain. He then moved to capture Badajoz, which was a tough battle. The town fell on 6 April after heavy fighting. The allies also took the city of Salamanca on 17 June. Soon after, they met the French army and won a big battle at the Battle of Salamanca on 22 July. This victory helped Wellington become known as a strong leader. The French were hurt by this loss, and the allies moved toward Madrid, which gave up on 14 August. They took many weapons and important symbols from the French.

French autumn counterattack

After losing at Salamanca, the French king, Joseph Bonaparte, left Madrid on 11 August and went to Valencia. The French leader Soult decided to stop trying to capture Cádiz and began to leave. The French had to give up parts of Spain, including Andalusia, because they feared being trapped by the allied armies. The allies tried to capture Burgos but failed. The French then tried to take Madrid back, which made Wellington and his troops pull back to Portugal. This retreat was hard on the allied forces.

1813

Defeat of King Joseph

By the end of 1812, the large French army that had invaded Russia no longer existed. The French had to leave East Prussia and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw because they could not fight the Russians coming after them. Austria and Prussia also decided to fight against France, so Napoleon took some soldiers away from Spain to help elsewhere. This left fewer French soldiers in Spain.

In 1813, a leader named Wellington led a big group of soldiers from Portugal through Spain. They went around the French army and took a city called Burgos. This made the French leader, King Joseph, move to a different valley.

At the Battle of Vitoria on June 21, Wellington’s soldiers fought against King Joseph’s army. Wellington’s soldiers won, and King Joseph had to run away. Many French soldiers were captured, and King Joseph lost his things. This was a big victory for Wellington’s army.

End of the war in Spain

Campaign in the eastern Atlantic region

Later in 1813, Wellington’s soldiers faced problems. Some of his soldiers got sick, and others left the army without permission. The soldiers also sometimes took things from the people they were supposed to help, which caused trouble.

A French leader named Soult tried to fight back. He won some battles but was later pushed back by Wellington’s soldiers. They fought hard in places like San Sebastián and Pamplona. In one battle, the city of San Sebastián was burned by some of Wellington’s soldiers after a fight.

Wellington’s soldiers crossed a river called the Bidassoa and fought the French again. They won and moved closer to France.

Campaign in the northern Mediterranean region

In another part of Spain called Catalonia, a French leader named Suchet had some wins but was later pushed back by British and Spanish soldiers. He had to leave some cities and send soldiers back to France because he didn’t have enough men.

Invasion of France

Wellington’s soldiers moved into France and fought many battles. In one battle called the Battle of Nivelle, Wellington’s soldiers won and pushed the French back. The fighting was hard, but Wellington’s soldiers kept moving forward.

1814

In February 1814, fighting continued on French land. Wellington quickly started attacks, pushing French troops back. After battles, Wellington’s forces crossed rivers and prepared to surround the city of Bayonne. On 27 February, Wellington fought a battle at Orthez, forcing the French to move away.

In April, Wellington’s army crossed more rivers and attacked the city of Toulouse on 10 April. After hard fighting, the French leader Soult left the city, and Wellington’s soldiers entered Toulouse on 12 April.

Then, news arrived that Paris had been captured and Napoleon had agreed to step down from leading France. This meant the big war was ending. Peace was officially agreed to in May 1814.

Aftermath

See also: History of Spain (1808–1874)

Ferdinand VII stayed as King of Spain after being recognized by Napoleon on December 11, 1813, through the Treaty of Valençay. Some people who supported French ways were sent away to France. The country had suffered greatly from Napoleon’s soldiers, and the Catholic Church faced big losses.

With Napoleon sent far away to the island of Elba, Louis XVIII took back the throne of France.

Some British soldiers returned to England, while others sailed to the United States to help in the last part of the American War of 1812.

After the fighting ended, groups in Spain who wanted independence argued with those who supported the king. This led to the Carlist Wars. Ferdinand changed many laws made by the independent Cortes Generales in Cádiz, including the Constitution of 1812, on May 4, 1814. Later, in 1820, soldiers made Ferdinand accept the Cádiz Constitution again, which stayed until April 1823, a time called the Trienio Liberal.

The idea of self-rule inspired leaders who later helped Spanish America become independent.

Portugal did better than Spain during this time. There was no big fight in Brazil, and no revolution there. When Portugal’s leaders moved to Rio de Janeiro, it began Brazil’s path to independence of Brazil in 1822.

In popular culture

The Peninsular War has been remembered in many artworks and monuments. Famous artist Francisco Goya created 82 prints called The Disasters of War between 1810 and 1820, showing the tough times during this war. In Paris, the Arc de Triomphe was completed in 1836, and it includes writings about French wins in the Peninsular War.

There are also special statues and paintings about brave people from the war. One statue honors Juana Galán, nicknamed La Galana, who fought against French soldiers during the Battle of Valdepeñas. A famous painting from 1828, called The Defence of Saragossa by David Wilkie, shows Agustina de Aragón loading a cannon and firing at French attackers during the first siege of Zaragoza. There is also a monument in Porto to honor heroes of this war.