Political history of the Philippines

The political history of the Philippines is a story of many changes and challenges over hundreds of years. Long ago, the islands were made up of small groups called barangays, but bigger states appeared when new ideas and religions arrived through trade. When Spanish settlers came, they created a place called the Captaincy General of the Philippines, ruled from Manila. Even though it was part of New Spain, the Philippines often governed itself, with local leaders helping to lead.

In the 1800s, big changes happened as Filipinos began to think more about their own identity. Educated people, called Ilustrado, tried to ask Spain for better treatment, but this did not work. This led to a movement for independence and even a revolution. Even though leaders declared independence in 1898, Spain gave the islands to the United States. The U.S. set up its own rule and later allowed the Philippines to become almost independent with its own leader and rules.

After World War II, the Philippines finally became fully independent in 1946, with two big groups, the Liberal Party and the Nacionalista Party, sharing power. But in 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos took control by declaring martial law. After many problems, people rose up in what is called the People Power Revolution in 1986, which ended Marcos's rule and brought in new leaders. Since then, the country has had many changes in government and continues to work toward a stable and fair political system.

Pre-Spanish era

Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1521)

Before the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, the Philippines was made up of many small groups called barangays. These barangays were small states connected by trade across the region. The word "barangay" may come from "balangay," a type of boat used by the Austronesian people to travel to the Philippines. These societies had different classes, including leaders called datus, along with freemen and others with fewer rights.

Later, Hindu influences helped some leaders gain more power. The first large state was Sulu, which began practicing Islam in the 1400s. This spread to nearby areas like the Sultanate of Maguindanao and the Kingdom of Maynila. In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan died in a conflict between two leaders, Lapu-Lapu and Rajah Humabon, over control of Cebu. Later, in 1565, Spanish leader Miguel López de Legazpi set up a settlement in Cebu. In 1571, the area of Maynila was taken over, and Manila became the main city for Spanish rule. Spain slowly took control of most of what is now the Philippines, though some areas in the south and the Cordillera highlands remained outside their control.

Spanish era

Main article: History of the Philippines (1521–1898)

Colonization and governance

When the Spanish arrived, they changed small groups called barangays into larger towns. This helped them control the people and shift them to farming. Even though these groups kept some of their old names, called barrio, the Spanish Church had a lot of power. Local priests carried out Spanish orders and collected taxes. The real power, though, was with the King and a group called the Council of the Indies. Still, because the Philippines was far away, it often ran itself. A local Governor and a court started in 1583 helped manage things.

Spanish rule didn’t reach far past Manila. With only a few Spanish officials, locals were needed to help run things. Local leaders called datus helped manage barangays and choose people for government jobs. The Church stayed a big Spanish presence. There were several uprisings against Spanish rule, but they were all put down. Some uprisings led to more local people getting jobs in the government. This created a new class of local leaders who could suggest appointments but didn’t have real power. Over time, they became more different from others, getting educations and marrying Spanish and Chinese people.

Trade routes set up by Spain sent all trade to Spanish colonies in the New World. Even with more economic activity, the islands stayed divided by language and culture. Areas like Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago, and Palawan stayed mostly out of Spanish control. There was ongoing conflict between these areas and the Spanish. In the mountain areas, Spanish control was only in the lowlands. People moving inward to escape Spanish rule and more trade led to more settlements and growth in those areas.

From the late 1700s, the government tried to take power away from Church groups and give it to local priests. In the 1800s, Philippine ports opened to world trade, and changes started in Filipino society. In 1808, a new king in Spain led to the Philippines having a voice in the Spanish government, but this was taken away later. From 1836, the Philippines was run directly by a Ministry in Spain.

Political problems in Spain led to many governors being sent to the Philippines between 1800 and 1860, often without experience. Big political changes started in the 1860s, with a cabinet under the Governor-General and a split between executive and judicial powers. Changes in Spain and the Philippines led to more bureaucracy and civil service jobs, mostly for educated people in cities. A new economy brought poverty and the start of a Civil Guard. Education reforms in the 1860s let more people go to school. The Spanish also tried to control mountain tribes, with more success in the south where they gained control of the seas and coasts and got the surrender of the Sultanate of Sulu in 1878.

National awakening and revolution

Wars in Latin America and new people moving in changed social identities. The word Filipino started to mean everyone in the islands, not just Spanish people born in Spain or the Philippines. This idea was pushed by wealthy families of mixed backgrounds, who wanted to be equal to Spanish groups. Spanish was a common language for the growing elite, most from Manila. A group of educated people called the Ilustrados became important in government and politics.

Liberal ideas from Spain were blocked by powerful Church groups. In the 1880s, some Ilustrados started a movement to change Spanish rule in the Philippines. They wanted equal treatment and more local control. Most of their work happened in Madrid. When liberal reforms were rejected, some saw this as the start of a national movement, and members returned to the Philippines. In 1893, Spain passed a law giving a little local control.

A harsh reaction to this movement led to its suppression. In the 1890s, splits happened among those who supported these ideas. One group, the Katipunan, formed in 1892, mostly from Manila’s middle class. They wanted full independence and started the Philippine Revolution in 1896. This got support from local leaders outside big cities, who gained more control as Spanish authorities left.

Even though many Ilustrados didn’t support the revolution, many were arrested by Spanish authorities. After the execution of José Rizal in 1896, the rebellion grew stronger. The Katipunan split into two groups, and a conference in 1897 led to more division and the execution of Andres Bonifacio, the Katipunan leader. Control passed to Emilio Aguinaldo. Spanish forces couldn’t stop the growing support for the revolution outside Manila. A temporary constitution was created but replaced by an agreement called the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. This led to Aguinaldo’s exile and some payments, but the agreement wasn’t kept.

When the Spanish–American War reached the Philippines in 1898, Aguinaldo returned, set up a new government, and proclaimed Philippine independence on June 12, 1898, in Kawit, Cavite. After a battle, Aguinaldo set up a revolutionary government and a congress in Barasoain Church. This congress approved the declaration of independence and, in 1899, the Malolos Constitution, starting the First Philippine Republic. The new republic reflected ideas of the time, with limits on voting and private property rights. On December 10, 1898, Spain gave control of the Philippines to the United States by the Treaty of Paris.

American era

Main article: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

The Philippine–American War began in February 1899 with a fight in Manila. The United States set up military and civil governments in the capital and other areas as they were brought under control. Nine days after taking Manila, civil administration started with the help of local leaders. In rural areas, working with local leaders who had taken over from the Spanish helped reduce resistance to American rule.

American leaders believed in the importance of law and tried to apply their legal traditions to the Philippines. They thought the people there were not yet ready for full self-government. The Americans worked with local elites, who helped gain acceptance of American rule. They introduced elections and included Filipinos in government roles.

The United States expanded local participation in government more than the Spanish had. Political participation was still limited to those with certain status, wealth, and literacy. The first election for the Philippine Assembly was held on July 30, 1907, and was dominated by the Nacionalista Party, which wanted independence. The Americans introduced more Filipinos into government jobs, and by 1921, most civil service workers were Filipino.

The Jones Law of 1916 created the Philippine Senate and aimed for eventual independence. Voting rules were changed to include more people, and by 1921, about 6–7% of the population could vote. The Nacionalista Party remained strong in elections until independence.

Commonwealth era

The new rules for how the government would work were approved on January 31, 1935, and started the next day. The first votes were held on September 17. Two leaders, Quezon and Osmeña, were chosen as president and vice president. The group in charge of making laws was controlled by one party, with the plan that the United States would let the Philippines become independent soon. In 1937, more people were allowed to vote, including women who could read. During this time, leaders worked to create one way to think about what it meant to be Filipino, even though many different groups lived on the islands. Tagalog became the main language used by everyone.

The way the government worked was based on the system used in the United States, but the leader of the Philippines had more power than the leader of the United States. There were problems between the leader and the group that made laws, especially about money matters. Some leaders used their jobs to help their families get more money and influence. After World War II, the Philippines joined groups like the United Nations.

When Japan invaded in 1941 during World War II, the leaders had to leave, and a new government was set up under Japanese control. After the war, the old leaders came back. In 1946, the United States allowed the Philippines to become fully independent, and a new government began.

Two-party system

Main article: History of the Philippines (1946–1965)

After the war, the government became weaker, and leaders from outside the capital city gained more power. Many used this power to join national politics. Some leaders who resisted during the war were given important local jobs, and others were elected to Congress. By the late 1960s, the system changed so that politicians did not need to rely on land ownership to gain support. Power stayed in the hands of a small group of wealthy people, and the country had two main political parties. The president usually also controlled both houses of Congress. There was little difference between the two parties, and switching sides was common. Sometimes, leaders used unfair methods to keep their power.

One president died suddenly, and his vice president took over. Later, another president died in a plane crash, and his vice president also took over. During this time, there were concerns about fair elections, and groups formed to watch over them. Some leaders became very popular, while others faced opposition and protests. The economy grew, leading to more influence from businesses and the media. One leader was re-elected but faced many protests and unrest after the vote.

Marcos dictatorship

Main article: History of the Philippines (1965–1986)

In 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law in the Philippines. He said this was needed to fight against communist rebels and Muslim groups seeking independence. This move allowed him to arrest political opponents and control the government without elections.

Marcos changed many parts of how the country was run. He created a new constitution and took control of many government areas, including the police and military. He also changed local government areas and renamed small communities. Over time, his rule faced problems like a weak economy and corruption. In 1986, after a disputed election, many people and parts of the military opposed Marcos. This led to large protests that forced him to leave power, and Corazon Aquino became the new president.

Post–People Power era

Main article: History of the Philippines (1986–present)

After the People Power Revolution, President Aquino governed with special powers given by the public. She set up a commission to create a new constitution to replace the old one from 1973. This new "freedom constitution" showed that Aquino’s government was put in place by the will of the Filipino people, helped by parts of the military. Because of this, the military later got more involved in politics.

In 1987, a new constitution was approved by voting. This brought back democratic rules similar to an older constitution from 1935. It also added term limits for leaders, created checks to prevent too much power in one place, and brought back the Senate. The military could no longer hold government jobs. The constitution also allowed ways for people to vote directly on important issues and gave more rights to groups in society.

The new constitution did not cancel laws from before. Some lands taken from rich families during a strict government time were given back. The constitution kept rules about civilian control of the military but added that the military should protect the people and the country. It also separated the police from the military and made the police responsible for internal safety. There were attempts to overthrow the government a few times between 1986 and 1987.

Elections in 1987 for the Senate saw pro-Aquino groups win most seats. Local leaders were first chosen by Aquino, but later elections let traditional leaders return to power. Movements for political change lost strength. Aquino’s time as president had challenges like attempts to overthrow her, high prices, job problems, and natural disasters. But she started some land reforms and opened the economy to more outside business. Communist and Islamic rebel groups kept fighting, and Aquino tried to make peace but later used a strong plan against them. The U.S. bases in Subic Bay and Clark left the country. In 1991, a new law gave more power to local governments.

Aquino did not want to be president again, and she supported Fidel V. Ramos for the 1992 election. Ramos won, though there were questions about the voting. He faced energy problems and solved them by making deals with companies that provided power. Ramos made changes to make the economy more open, hosted an important meeting of leaders from across the Pacific, brought back the death penalty, changed voting rules for the poor, and made a peace deal with a Muslim group. But his plans for big changes to the constitution failed.

Ramos’ vice president, Joseph Estrada, became president in 1998 after winning an election that many poorer voters supported. He tried to change the constitution but faced strong opposition. His government fought against Muslim rebels but also faced big accusations of corruption. This led to protests and finally, the military and others stopped supporting him. Estrada left office, and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo became president.

Arroyo faced many problems, including attempts to overthrow her government and accusations that she cheated in elections. She tried to change the constitution but failed. By the end of her time as president, many people thought her government was very corrupt, but there were no big protests to remove her.

Before the 2010 election, Arroyo’s party chose someone else to run, but the son of the former president Aquino, Benigno Aquino III, joined the race and won. His time as president was mostly calm and seen as less corrupt. But problems like natural disasters and accusations of misuse of money caused some people to lose trust.

In 2016, Rodrigo Duterte won the election and started a strong plan against illegal drugs. He also worked on building roads and other projects, made peace with Muslim rebels, and changed some rules to give more power to Muslim areas. His government continued many economic plans from Aquino but made some changes that gave less power to checks and balances.

In 2022, Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos, son of a former president, won the election and became president again, marking the return of his family to power after many years. Duterte’s daughter, Sara Duterte, became vice president.