SafekipediaProto-Germanic folklore
Adapted from Wikipedia · Discoverer experience
Proto-Germanic folklore was the set of beliefs, stories, and traditions held by the people who spoke the Proto-Germanic language. This includes many myths, legends, and everyday ideas that early Germanic groups shared. Scholars and language experts have worked hard to understand these old ideas by comparing words and stories from many Germanic languages and related languages from around the world.
By looking closely at different languages, experts have been able to guess what some old words and ideas might have been. These guesses are shown with an asterisk, like *saidaz, to show they are not exact but are based on evidence. For example, the idea of magic in old stories can be traced back to words in many different tongues, helping us learn about how people thought long ago.
Deities
Proto-Germanic paganism was the set of beliefs held by early Germanic people. Scholars have used special methods to guess what their gods and stories might have been like, even though we can't know for sure. These guesses often include names that start with an asterisk, showing they are not fully certain.
| Proto-Germanic reconstruction | Romano-Germanic | West Germanic | North Germanic | East Germanic | Etymology | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ? *Agjō-þe(g)waz | – | OE Ecgþéow, OHG Eggideo | ON Eggþér | – | Meaning 'edge-servant'. | ||
| ? Ala-fader | – | – | ON Alfǫðr | – | From Pre-Ger. *Ala-faþēr. Identical to PCelt. *Olo-(p)atīr (cf. Middle Irish Ollathair). | ||
| *Austrōn | (See entry notes) | OE Ēostre, OHG *Ôstara, OS *Āsteron | – | – | From the PIE stem *h2(e)wes- ('to shine, glow red'). Cognate with the Lithuanian deity Aušrinė, and further related to the PIE dawn-goddess *h₂éwsōs. | ||
| *Auza-wanđilaz | – | OE Ēarendel, OHG Aurendil, Lomb. Auriwandalo | ON Aurvandil | Goth. auzandil | Probably a compound of PGmc *auzom ('shiny, shiny liquid') and a derivate of *wanđuz ('rod, cane'). The PGmc form would therefore perhaps mean 'Light-Beam' | ||
| *Balđraz | – | OE Bældæg, OHG Balder | ON Baldr | – | From PGmc *balþaz ('brave'), which is identical to Lith. báltas ('white', also the name of a light-god), based on the semantic development from 'white' to 'shining' or 'strong' (man) > 'hero, lord, prince'. | ||
| Divine horse twins or dioscuri (motif) | Alcis | OE Hengist and Horsa, Low German Hengist and Hors (Holstein, 1875) | – | – | – | ||
| *Frawja- ~ *Fraw(j)ōn | – | OE frēa; OFris. frā; OS frōho, frāho; MDu. vroon; OHG frō | ON Freyr (theonym) | Goth. frauja | Unclear etymology. | ||
| *Frawjōn | – | OS frūa, OHG frouwa | ON Freyja (theonym) | – | |||
| *Frijjō | – | OE Frīg, OFris Frīa, OS Frī, OHG Frīja | ON Frigg | – | From PGmc *frijaz ('free'), itself from PIE *priH-o- ('one's own, beloved'). In a clan-based societal system, the meaning 'free' arose from the meaning 'related' (cf. PGmc *frijōnan 'to love', *friþuz 'friendship, peace'). | ||
| *Fullōn | – | OHG Volla | ON Fulla | – | From PGmc *fullaz ('full'), meaning 'fullness, plenitude' | ||
| *Gautaz | – | OE Gēat, Lang. Gausus | ON Gautr, Gauti | Goth. Gaut (Gapt) | Derived from PGmc *geutanan ('to pour'), or an ablaut variant of *gutaz ~ *gutōn ('Goth, Gut') | ||
| ? *Haihaz | – | – | ON Hárr | Goth. haihs | Cognate with PCelt. *kaiko- ('one-eyed, blind in one eye') and, with a slightly different meaning, with PIt. *kaikos ('blind'). | ||
| *Hludanaz | Hludana | – | ON Hlóðyn | – | Uncertain etymology. | ||
| ? *Huldō | – | Ger. Holda | ON Huld, Hulder | – | Meaning 'the Hidden One'. | ||
| *Ingwaz | – | OE Ing, OS Ing | ON Yngvi | Goth. Ing, enguz | Uncertain etymology | ||
| ? *Ingwina-frawjaz | – | OE frēa Ingwina | ON lngunarfreyr | – | Possibly a compound of PGmc *Ingwina- (Ing-friends') and *frawja- ('Lord'). *Ingwina- is derived from the name Ing- (see *Ingwaz) attached to PGmc *winiz ('friend'). Together, these forms mean 'Lord of the Ing-friends'. (See Ingaevones) | ||
| *Mannaz ~ *Manwaz | Mannus | OE mann, OFris mann, OS mann, OHG man(n) | ON maðr, mannr | Goth. manna | Meaning 'Man'. Cognate with Sanskrit Mánu and Avestan *Manuš. | ||
| *Mēnōn | – | OE móna, OFris mōna, OS māno, ODu. māne, OHG māno | ON Máni | Goth. mēna, Crim. Goth. mine | Meaning 'Moon'. From PIE *meh₁n-ōs ('moon; month'). The Germanic n-stem arose secondarily from the nom. *mēnō, which may regularly continue *meh₁n-ōt (cf. PGmc *mēnōþ-z 'month'). | ||
| *Nerþuz | Nerthus | – | ON Njǫrðr | – | The original meaning of the theonym is contested. It may be related to the Irish word nert, meaning 'force' and 'power'. The name Njǫrðr may be related to Njǫrun, an Old Norse goddess name. | ||
| *Sowelō ~ *Sōel | – | OHG Sunne (theonym), OE sigel | ON Sól (theonym) | Goth. sugil | PGmc *Sowel- > *Sōel- (gen. *Sunnōn) derives from the PIE word for 'sun', *séh₂uel, whose genitive form is *sh₂éns, sh₂unós. *Sugelan is a variant of Sowelō that can be morphologically compared to PGmc *sweglaz ('sunlight'). | ||
| *Tīwaz | – | OE Tīw, OHG *Ziu | ON Týr | Goth. *Teiws | From PIE *deywós ('celestial', hence a 'deity'), itself from *dyēus ('daylight sky god'). | ||
| *Twistō | Tuisto | – | – | – | Etymologically 'Twofold' (i.e. 'Twin', 'Bisexual', or 'Hermaphrodite'). Related to PGmc *twistaz, which is structurally close to Sanskrit dviṣṭa- ('staying in two places, ambiguous'). | ||
| *Þingsaz | Thingsus | MDu. Dings*, MLG Dinges*, OHG Dinges* | – | – | From PGmc *þingaz ('thing, assembly'). | ||
| *Þun(a)raz | – | OE Þunor, OS Thunar, OFris Thuner, OHG Donar | ON Þórr | – | From the PIE root *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder'). Cognate with the Celt. thunder-god Taranis (Tonaros), and further related to the Latin epithet Tonans. | ||
| *Yum(i)yaz | – | – | ON Ymir | – | Meaning 'Twin'. Cognate with Skt Yama, Av. Yima, and probably with Lat. Remus (Yemos). | ||
| *Wōđanaz | – | OE Wōden, OS Woden, OD Wuodan, OHG Wuotan, Lomb. Godan | ON Óðinn | – | Meaning 'Lord of Frenzy'. From PGmc *wōđaz ('delirious, raging') attached to the suffix -naz ('master of'). The former is identical to PCelt. *wātis ('seer, sooth-sayer') and Lat. vātēs ('prophet, seer'). | ||
| ? *Wōđaz | – | OE wōð, OHG wuot, MD woet | ON Óðr | – | From Pre-Germanic *uoh₂-tós. Related to PCelt *wātis ('seer, sooth-sayer') and *wātus ('prophesy, poetic inspiration'). | ||
| *Wulþuz | (o)wlþu- | – | ON Ullr | – | From PIE *ul-tu- uel- ('to see'). Identical to Lat. vultus ('facial expression, appearance'). | ||
| *Wurđiz | – | OE wyrd, OS wurd, OHG wurt | ON Urðr | – | Meaning 'Fate'. From PGmc *werþanan ('to come about, happen, become'). | ||
| Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested | |||||||
Entities
This section discusses the different beings and characters from early Germanic stories and beliefs. Many of these names and ideas are guesses made by experts who study old languages, and they are marked with an asterisk (*) to show they are not fully certain. These stories include gods, heroes, and other important figures from the past.
| Proto-Germanic reconstruction | West Germanic | North Germanic | East Germanic | Etymology | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *alƀaz | OE ælf, MD alf, MLG alf, OHG alb | ON álfr | Burg. *alfs | From the PIE root for '(matt) white', *h₂elbʰ-. Structurally close to Lat. albus ('(matt) white') and Grk alphoús ('white'). | |||
| *al(j)a-wihtiz | OE æl-wiht | ON al-vitr | – | Compound of *aljaz ('other') and *wihtiz ('thing, creature'). | |||
| *ansuz ~ *ansiz | OE ōs, OS ās, OHG ansi- | ON áss | Goth. anses | Meaning '(a) deity'. From PIE *h₂ems-u- h₂ems- ('to give birth'). Identical to Hitt. ḫassu- ('king'), Skt. ásu- ('life, vital strength'), Av. ahu- ('lord'), or Venet. ahsu- ('cult image'). Further related to Skt ásura- and Av. ahura- ('god, lord'). Potentially connected to PGmc *ansaz 'beam' (see also Anthropomorphic wooden cult figurines of Central and Northern Europe). | |||
| *đīsō ~ dīsi- | OE ides, OS idis, OHG itis | ON dís | – | Uncertain etymology. The West Germanic forms present some difficulty to resolve but the North Germanic and West Germanic forms are used explicitly as cognates (e.g. OE ides Scildinga and ON dís Skjǫldunga). | |||
| *draugaz | – | ON draugr | – | Identical to PCelt. *drougos (cf. OIr. airdrech 'sprite, phantom' *(p)ari-drougo-). | |||
| *dwas- | OE dwœs, MHG ge-twās | – | – | From Pre-Ger. *dhwos-. Related to PCelt. *dwosyos (cf. Gaul. dusios 'incubus, daemon') and Lith. dvasià ('breath, spirit, soul'). | |||
| *đwergaz | OE dweorg, OFris. dwirg, OS *dwerg, MDu. dwerch, OHG twerg | ON dvergr | – | Unclear etymology. Perhaps from a PGmc verb *dwerganan ('to squeeze, press') possibly attested in MHG zwergen. | |||
| *etunaz | OE eōten | ON jǫtunn | – | Probably from PGmc *etanan ('to eat'). | |||
| *gaistaz | OE gǽst, OFris gāst, OS gēst, ODu. gēst, OHG geist | – | – | Meaning 'ghost, spirit, wrath'. From Pre-Ger. *ghois-t-oz ('fury, anger'), which is comparable to Sanskrit héḍas ('anger') and Avestan zōižda- ('terrible, ugly'). | |||
| *gudą or *gud(a)z (neuter) | OE god, OFris. god, ODu. god, OS god, OHG got | ON guð | Goth. guþ | Meaning '(a) deity' and predecessor to modern English god. Unclear etymology. Traditionally derived from *ǵʰu-t(ó)- ('libated one') ǵʰeu- ('to pour'), although alternative connections with PIE *ǵʰeuH- ('to invoke'), with OCS gověti ('to revere'), or with Greek χυτὴ γαῖα ('burial mound') have also been proposed. | |||
| *lenþa-wurmaz | MLG linde-worm, OHG lind-wurm | ON linn-ormr | – | Compound of *lenþaz ('snake') and *wurmaz ('worm'). | |||
| *marōn | OE mære, MD māre, OS māra, OHG mara | ON mara | – | From PIE *mor-eh₂, of unclear origin. Cognate with Slav. *morà ('nightly spirit, bad dream') and OIr. mor-rígain ('queen of bad dreams'; a goddess of the battlefield and female malicious entity). See also the Russian kiki-mora, a female house-spirit that spins at night. | |||
| *nikwiz ~ *nikwuz ~ *nikwaza- | OE nicor, MDu. nicker, MLG necker, OHG nichus, nihhus | ON nykr | – | From PIE *nígʷ-ōs neigʷ- ('to wash'). | |||
| *skrattōn ~ *skradan- | OE scrætte, OHG scratto | ON skratti | – | An n-stem originally inflected as *skradō, gen. *skrattaz skrodʰōn, *skrodʰnós. | |||
| *skōhsla- | – | – | Goth. skōhsl | Identical to PCelt. *skāhslo- (cf. Old Irish scál ‘supernatural or superhuman being, phantom, giant, hero; the god Lug’, Middle Welsh yscaul ‘hero, champion, warrior'). | |||
| *þurisaz | OE ðyrs, OHG duris | ON þurs | – | No clear etymology. Perhaps related to ON þyrja ('to rush'), ON þora ('to dare'), or Icel. þursi ('quarrel, anger, rage'). | |||
| *wrisjōn | OS wrisi-, OHG riso | ON risi | – | Probably related to Greek ῥίον ('peak, headland'). | |||
| *wala-kuzjōn | OE wælcyrge | ON valkyrja | – | Meaning 'chooser of the slain'. Compound of *walaz ('the slain') and *kuzjōn ('chooser' keusanan 'to trial, select'). See also OE wæl-cēasega, a name for 'raven' that literally means 'chooser of the slain'. | |||
| *wira-wulfaz | OE were-wulf, OFrank. *wer-wolf, MDu. weer-wolf, MLG wer-wulf, WFris. waer-ûl(e), MHG wer-wolf | ON varg-úlfr | – | Meaning 'man-wolf' and predecessor to modern English werewolf. Probably a compound of *wiraz ('man') and *wulfaz ('wolf'). Alternately derived from *wazi-wulfaz ('wolf-clothed'), bringing the compound semantically in line with the Slavic name for 'werewolf', *vьlko-dlakь, literally 'wolf-haired'. | |||
| *wehtiz ~ *wihtiz | OE wiht, OS wiht, Du. wicht, OHG wiht | ON vættr | Goth. waihts | A 'creature'. Related to Slav. *vektь ('thing'). Possibly from PIE *weḱti- ~ *weǵʰ-ti-, or a Germanic–Slavic isogloss. | |||
| Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested | |||||||
Locations
| Proto-Germanic reconstruction | Translation | West Germanic | North Germanic | East Germanic | Etymology | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *Ferg(w)unjan ~ *Ferg(w)unjō | 'mountain' | OHG Firgunnea | ON Fjǫrgyn | – | Probably from PIE *per-kwun-ih₂ ('wooded mountains', i.e. the realm of *Perkwunos). Cognate with PCelt. *ferkunyo > (H)ercynia. | ||
| *Haljō | 'the concealed' | OE hell, OFris helle, ODu. helle, OS hellia, OHG hella | ON hel | Goth. halja | From PGmc *helanan ('to conceal, hide'). | ||
| *Halja-wītjan | 'hell-knowledge' | OE helle-wīte, OS helli-wīti, MHG helle-wītze | ON hel-víti | – | Compound of PGmc *Haljō ('Hell') and *wītjan ('knowledge, reason'). | ||
| *hem(e)naz | 'heaven' | OE heofon, OFris. himel, OS heƀan, ODu. himil, MLG hēven, OHG himil | ON himinn | Goth. himins | From the gen. *h₂ḱmnós of PIE *h₂eḱmon ('heavenly vault of stone'). Possibly cognate with PGmc *hamaraz ('hammer') via a metathesized stem *ḱ(e)h₂-m-r- (cf. Grk kamára 'vault'). | ||
| *(hemena-)wangaz | '(heaven-)meadow' | OS heƀan-wang, OE (neorxna-)wang | ON himin-vangr, (Fólk)vangr | Gothic waggs | Compound of PGmc *hemenaz ('heaven') and *wangaz ('meadow'). The noun *wangaz stems from the PIE root *uongʰ-, denoting a 'field'. | ||
| *Meðjana-garðaz | 'middle-enclosure' | OE middan-geard, OS middil-gard, OHG mitti-gart | ON mið-garðr | Goth. midjun-gards | Compound of PGmc *meðjanaz ('middle') and *garðaz ('enclosure, courtyard'). | ||
| *wira-alđiz | 'man-age' | OE weorold, OFris. wrald, OS werold, MDu. werelt, OHG weralt | ON verǫld | – | Compound of PGmc *wiraz ('man') and *alđiz ('age'). | ||
| Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested | |||||||
Other
| Proto-Germanic reconstruction | Translation | West Germanic | North Germanic | East Germanic | Etymology | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *alh(a)z | 'temple' | OE ealh, OS alah | ON -áll | Goth. alhs | Identical to Lith. alkas ('holy grove'). | ||
| *austro-mēnōþ | 'Austrōn-month' | OE ēosturmōnaþ, ODu. ostermanoth, OHG ōstarmānōd | – | – | A compound of WGmc *Austrōn (a female deity) and *mēnōþ ('month'). | ||
| *ƀlōtanan | 'to sacrifice' | OE blōtan, OHG bluozan | ON blóta | Goth. blotan | Traditionally compared to Lat. flāmen ('sacrificial priest'), possibly from an earlier *flādsmen bʰleh₂dmen-. | ||
| *ƀlōta-hūsan | 'house of worship, house of sacrifice' | OHG bluoz-hūz | ON blót-hús | – | Compound of PGmc *ƀlotan ('sacrifice, worship') and *hūsan ('house'). | ||
| *elhja- | 'evil' | – | ON illr | – | From Pre-Ger. *elkyo-, attested in the Finnish loanwords elkiä ('mean, malicious') and ilkeä ('bad, mean, wicked'). Possibly related to Old Irish ol(c)c ('bad, evil'). | ||
| *frijjadag | 'Friday' | OE Frīgedæg, OFris. Frīadei, MDu. Vriendach, MLG Vrīdach, OHG Frīatag | ON Frjádagr | – | A Late PGmc compound of *Frijjō ('Frigg') and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Veneris dies. | ||
| *galđran | 'magic song, spell, charm' | OE gealdor, OHG galtar | ON galdr | – | From PGmc *galanan ('to shout, sing, chant'). | ||
| *guđ(j)ōn | 'priest' | OE *gydda | ON goði, gyðja | Goth. gudja | From PGmc *guđaz ('god'). | ||
| *hailagaz | 'holy' | OE hālig, OFris. hēlich, OS hēlag, OHG heilag | ON heilagr | Goth. hailags | From PGmc *hailaz ('hale, whole, sound'). | ||
| *hailaga-mēnōþ | 'holy-month' | OE hāliġ-mōnaþ, ODu. heil-mānōth, OHG heilag-mānōth | – | – | A compound of PGmc *hailagaz ('holy') and *mēnōþ ('month'). | ||
| *harƀistu-mēnōþz | 'autumn-month, harvest-month' | OE hærfest-mōnaþ, ODu. hervist-mānōth, OHG herbist-mānōth | ON haust-mánuðr | – | A compound of PGmc *harƀistaz ('autumn, harvest') and *mēnōþz ('month'). | ||
| *har(u)gaz | 'holy stone', perhaps 'sacrificial mound' | OE hearg, OHG harug | ON hǫrgr | – | From Pre-Ger. *karkú-. Probably borrowed from the same non-Indo-European source as PCelt. *karrikā ('stone'). | ||
| *halja-rūnō(n) | 'witch, sorceress' | OE helle-rūne, OHG helli-rūna | – | Lat.-Goth. pl. (Jordanes) haliurunae | Compound of *haljō ('Hel') and *rūnō ('secret, mystery, rune'). | ||
| *hunslan | 'sacrifice' | OE hūsel | ON húsl | Goth. hunsl | A sla-suffix added to the PIE stem *ḱuent- ('holy, sacred'). | ||
| *hugi-rūnō | 'secret of the mind, magical rune' | OE hyge-rūn | ON hug-rúnar | – | Compound of *hugiz ('understanding, mind') and *rūnō ('secret, mystery, rune'). | ||
| *jehwlan | 'Yule' | OE geō(hho)l | ON jól | Goth. *jaihl | No credible etymology. | ||
| *jehwla-mēnōþz ~ *jehwlaz | 'Yule-month' | OE gēol-mōnaþ, gīuli | ON jól-mánuðr, ýlir | Goth. jiuleis | |||
| *jēra-mēnōþz | 'year-month' | OHG jār-mānōd | ON ár-mánaðr | – | A compound of PGmc *jēran ('year') and mēnōþz ('month'). | ||
| *kunjaz | 'omen' | – | ON kyn | – | Closely related to Lith. žinià ('knowledge, magic'). | ||
| *lēk(i)jaz | 'healer, physician' | OE lǣce, OS lāki, OFris. letza, OHG lāhhi | ON lækir | Goth. lekeis | From Pre-Ger. *lēgyos. Borrowed from PCelt. lēagis (cf. OIr. lieig 'physician, healer, leech'). | ||
| *lubjan | 'herbal medicine, magic potion' | OE lybb, OS lubbi, MDu. lubbe, OHG lubbi | ON lýf | Goth. lubja- | Related to PGmc *lauban ('foliage'; cf. PCelt. *lubi- 'herb'). | ||
| *melđunjaz | 'lightning', 'hammer' | – | ON Mjǫllnir | – | From a PIE stem meld-n-, which may have originally designated Perkwunos' weapon. Cognate with Latv. milna (Pērkōns' hammer), OPrus. mealde ('lightning'), OCS mъldni ('lightning'), Welsh mellten ('bolt of lightning'). | ||
| *mēnandag | 'Monday' | OE Mōnandæg, OFris. Mōnandei, MDu. MLG Mānendach, OHG Mānetag | ON Mánadagr | – | A Late PGmc compound of *Menōn ('Moon') and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Lunae dies. | ||
| *nemeđaz | 'sacred grove' | OFrank. nimid, OS nimidas | Swed. Nymden | – | Related to or borrowed PCelt. *nemetom ('sacred grove, sanctuary'). | ||
| *rūnō | 'secret, mystery; secret counsel; rune' | OE rūn, OS rūna, MDu. rūne, OHG rūna | ON rún | Goth. runa | Borrowed from or cognate with PCelt. *rūna ('secret, magic'). | ||
| *rūna-stabaz | 'runic letter' | OE rūn-stæf, OHG rūn-stab | ON rúna-stafr | – | A compound of PGmc *rūnō ('secret, mystery, counsel') and *stabaz ('staff; letter'). | ||
| *saidaz | 'spell, charm, magic' | – | ON seiðr | – | From Pre-Ger. *saiþa-, which is cognate with Lith. saitas ('soothsaying, talisman') and PCelt. *soyto- ('magic'). Probably originally identical to PIE *soito- ('string, rope'), from *seh2i- ('to bind'). | ||
| *saiwalō | 'soul' | OE sāwel; OFris sēle; OS sēola, sēla; OHG sēola, sēla | – | Goth. saiwala | According to Vladimir Orel, derived from PGmc *saiwiz ~ *saiwaz ('sea, lake'), "probably because of a Germanic belief in souls born out of and returning to sacred lakes". | ||
| *skaldaz | 'poet' | OHG skelto | ON skáld | – | Probably from a PGmc verb *skeldanan ~ *skadjanan ('to announce, reproach'; cf. ME scolden, OFri. skelda, ODu. sceldan, OHG sceltan). Perhaps related to PCelt. *sketlo- ('story, tidings'; cf. OIr. scél 'saga, narrative', MWelsh chwedl 'traditional narrative, tidings'). | ||
| *sumlan | 'banquet, symposium' | OE symbel, OS sumbal | ON sum(b)l | – | From PIE *sṃ-lo- ('joint meal'). | ||
| *sunnandag | 'Sunday' | OE Sunnandæg, OFris. Sunnandei, MDu. Sonnendach, MLG Sunnendach, OHG Sunnūntag | ON Sunnudagr | – | A Late PGmc compound of *sunnōn (genitive of *Sowēlo 'Sun') attached to *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Solis dies. | ||
| *tafnan | 'sacrificial meat' | – | ON tafn | – | From Pre-Ger. dapno- dh₂p-no- ('sacrificial meal'). Cognate with Lat. damnum ('harm, damage, loss'), MIr. dúan ('poem, song') and Arm. tawn ('feast'). | ||
| *taufran | 'sorcery, magic' | OE tēafor, OFris. tāver, MLG tover, OHG zoubar | ON taufr | – | Possibly derived from PGmc *tawjanan ('to do, make'). | ||
| *tiƀran | 'sacrifice, animal offering' | OE tiber, tifer, OHG zebar | – | Goth. aibr | Cognate with Greek δεῖπνον ('meal') and Arm. tvar ('male sheep') déip-r, gen. dip-n-ós. According to some scholars, Goth. aibr should be emended to *tibr. | ||
| *tīwasdag | 'Tuesday' | OE Tīwesdæg, OFris. Tīesdei, OHG Ziestag | ON Týsdagr | – | A Late PGmc compound of *Tīwaz (Týr) and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Martis dies. | ||
| *þonaresdag | 'Thursday' | OE Þunresdæg, OFris. Thunresdei, MDu. Donresdach, OHG Donarestag | ON Þórsdagr | – | A Late PGmc compound of *Þun(a)raz (Thor) and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Iovis dies. | ||
| *wīhaz | 'holy, divine' | OE wīg-, OS wīh-, OHG wīh | – | Goth. weihs | From PIE *wéik-o-. Identical to Lith. viẽkas ('life force'), and further related to Lat. victima ('sacrificial animal'). | ||
| *wīhan | 'sanctuary' | OE wīh, OS wīh, OHG wīh | ON vé | – | From PGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine'). | ||
| *wīhōn | 'priest' | – | ON Véi | Goth. weiha | From PGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine'). | ||
| *wikkōnan | 'to practice sorcery' | OE wiccian, WFris. wikje, MDu. wicken, MHG wicken | – | – | From PGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine'). | ||
| *wītagōn | 'wizard, prophet' | OE wítega, OHG wīzago | ON vitki | – | From PGmc *witanan ('to know'). | ||
| *wōdanesdag | 'Wednesday' | OE Wōdnesdæg, OFris. Wērnisdei, MDu. Woensdach, MLG Wōdensdach, OHG Wōdanstag | ON Óðinsdagr | – | A Late PGmc compound of *Wōdanaz (Odin) and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Mercurii dies. | ||
| Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested | |||||||
Shared lexicon with Celtic, Baltic and Slavic
Proto-Celtic
See also: Proto-Celtic paganism
The shared words between Celtic and Germanic languages show that people who spoke Proto-Germanic and Proto-Celtic were close to each other long ago. They probably shared some beliefs too. This connection goes back even further to times when Pre-Germanic and Celtic languages were interacting, as shown by some words that do not follow the rules of Grimm's Law, which happened around 500 BCE.
Historian John T. Koch thinks that Pre-Germanic and Pre-Celtic languages stayed close from 1800 to between 1200 and 900 BCE. This was partly because of trading metal over long distances with Scandinavia. Some words from Celtic were borrowed into Germanic languages between 900 and 500 BCE, after changes in Proto-Celtic happened but before Grimm's Law affected Proto-Germanic.
Baltic and Slavic
The link between Proto-Germanic speakers and those of Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic is not very clear. Edgar Polomé says that the words shared only by Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic groups are not enough to prove they were very closely related. Frederik Kortlandt believes that because many shared words were borrowed after Baltic and Slavic split apart, Germanic and Proto-Balto-Slavic were never next to each other as one language family. He thinks the earliest contacts between Germanic and Baltic-Slavic speakers were in the early Middle Ages, and words from Germanic in Baltic likely came through Slavic languages.
Some beliefs and stories are shared among Germanic, Slavic, and Celtic groups. For example, the Proto-Germanic word for werewolf (*wira-wulfaz, 'man-wolf') seems related to the Proto-Slavic and Proto-Celtic words for 'wolf-haired' and 'man-dog'. The idea of the Wild Hunt is also found among Germans, Celts, and Slavs.
Shared lexicon
| Germanic | Celtic | Balto-Slavic | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| *Ala-fader | *Olo-(p)atīr | – | 'All-Father' (an epithet) |
| *alh(a)z | – | Lith. alkas | 'holy grove, temple' |
| *Austrōn | – | Lith. Aušrinė | a goddess connected with the dawn |
| *dwas- | *dwosyos | Lith. dvasià | 'incubus, daemon, spirit, soul, ghost' |
| *draugaz | *drougo- | – | 'sprit, phantom' |
| *elhja- | ol(c)c | – | 'bad, evil' |
| *ferg(w)unjō | *ferkunyo | Slav. *per(g)ynja | 'wooded mountains' (realm of *Perkwunos) |
| *Haihaz | *kaiko- | – | 'one-eyed, blind in one eye' (an epithet) |
| *har(u)gaz | *karnom | – | 'holy stone, funerary monument' |
| *kunjaz | – | Lith. žinià | 'omen, knowledge, magic' |
| *lēk(i)jaz | *lēagis | – | 'healer' |
| *lubjan | *lubi- | – | '(medicinal) herb' |
| *marōn | *morā | Slav. *morà | 'nightly spirit, bad dream' |
| *meldunjaz | *meldo- | – | 'lightning, hammer of the thunder-god' |
| *nemedaz | *nemetom | – | 'sacred grove, sanctuary' |
| *rūnō | *rūnā | – | 'secret, magic, mystery' |
| *saidaz | *soytos | Lith. saitas | 'magic, charm, soothsaying' |
| *skaldaz | ? *sketlo- | – | 'poet' |
| *skōhsla- | *skāhslo- | – | 'demon, supernatural being, evil spirit' |
| *Þun(a)raz | *Tonaros | – | From PIE *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder') |
| *wehtiz | – | Slav. *vektь | 'creature' |
| *wīhaz | – | Lith. viẽkas | 'holy, divine' |
| *wōðaz | *wātis | – | 'seer, sooth-sayer; ecstatic, possessed, (divinely) inspired' |
Related articles
This article is a child-friendly adaptation of the Wikipedia article on Proto-Germanic folklore, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.