Religion

Religion is a range of social and cultural systems that include special behaviors, practices, ethics, morals, beliefs, worldviews, sacred texts, holy places, and organizations. These systems connect people to what they see as supernatural, transcendental, and spiritual elements. There is no exact agreement among scholars about what really makes up a religion, and different religions can have many different features.

Religions often have important stories, myths, and histories that are kept alive through oral traditions, sacred writings, symbols, and special places. These stories try to explain big questions like how life and the universe began. People practice their religions in many ways, including rituals, sermons, prayers, festivals, and services for important life events like marriages and funerals.

There are about 10,000 different religions around the world, but most people belong to just a few. Four religions—Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism—include more than 77% of the world's population. Many people also do not follow any specific religion, including those who are atheists or agnostics. Scholars study religion using many different methods, looking at its history, philosophy, and social effects.

Etymology and history of the concept of "religion"

Etymology

See also: History of religion

The word religion comes from old words in Old French and Anglo-Norman from the 1200s. It means respect, duty, or reverence for gods or sacred things. It comes from the Latin word religiō. The Roman philosopher Cicero thought it meant to go over or consider things carefully. Others think it meant to bind or connect. In the middle ages, it was also used to describe groups like monastic orders, such as the followers of the Golden Fleece or a knight of the religion of Avys.

Religiō

Main article: Religio

In old times, religiō meant conscientiousness, duty, or obligation. It was not about gods at first. For the ancient Romans, it was about feelings of caution, anxiety, or fear, and being bound or restricted. It was also linked to terms like scrupulus, meaning precision, and superstitio, meaning too much fear. When the word religiō entered English in the 1200s, it meant life bound by vows, like in monastic orders. The idea of separating religious and worldly things only started in the 1500s, especially around the Peace of Augsburg, which helped form sovereign states.

History of the concept of "religion"

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of religion.

The idea of religion is a modern one and not the same across all history, cultures, or languages. It started in the 17th century because of events like the Protestant Reformation and globalization during the Age of Exploration. Some think it’s not right to call non-Western cultures “religious,” and some followers of faiths dislike the term for their own beliefs. Many cultures don’t separate the natural from the supernatural.

The idea of “ancient religion” comes from modern views of practices that fit today’s idea of religion. The concept of religion was created in the 1500s and 1600s, even though ancient texts like the Bible or the Quran didn’t have a word for it. For example, in Hebrew, there’s no exact match for religion, and Judaism mixed religious, national, and ethnic ideas. In the 1st century CE, Josephus used the Greek word ioudaismos (Judaism) as an ethnic term, not a religion. The word threskeia was used in Ancient Greece and later in the New Testament, but it meant worship, not religion as we know it.

In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often called religion today, but old translations called it “law.” In South Asia, the Sanskrit word dharma means both religion and law. In Japan, ideas of law and religion were mixed until they separated later.

The idea of “nonreligion” or “secular” is also new and not found in many cultures. Outside the West, these ideas may not even exist. Studies show that religion and nonreligion can overlap in people’s daily lives.

Definition

Main article: Definition of religion

People have different ideas about what religion means. Some think it is about beliefs and practices that connect us to something bigger than ourselves, like a higher power or spiritual ideas. Others see it as a way people live their lives together, with shared values and special traditions.

The word "religion" came from older times in Western history. Many cultures around the world have their own ways of thinking and acting that are similar but don’t use the word “religion.” Because of this, it’s hard to find one simple definition that works for everyone. Some experts even say it might not be right to use the idea of religion to describe cultures that didn’t grow up with these thoughts.

Aspects

Beliefs

Main article: Religious beliefs

People have many reasons for believing in religions. Some think about life and death, others feel a sense of togetherness with others, and some believe because of dreams they have had. In the past, many thought that faith and reason were both important for religious beliefs. Philosophers and religious leaders have often talked about how faith and reason work together to support these beliefs.

Mythology

Main article: Mythology

The word myth can mean a few different things. It might be a traditional story that helps explain something about the world or a belief. It can also mean something that isn’t real, like a make-believe person or thing. Sometimes, myth is used to describe deep, spiritual ideas about humans.

Ancient religions, like those from Greece, Rome, and Scandinavia, often have stories we call myths. Small cultures and developing societies also have these kinds of stories. Some people might use the word myth to make another person's beliefs seem less real. But in studying how societies work, myth can mean a story that is important to a group, even if it isn’t proven true. For example, the story of the resurrection of Jesus is very important to Christians. It shows the idea that life can overcome death, whether or not it happened exactly as told.

Practices

Main articles: Religious behaviour and Cult (religious practice)

Religions have many practices. These can include rituals, talks by leaders called sermons, celebrating a deity (a god or goddess), special events called festivals, times of quiet thinking called meditation, and prayer. There are also ways to mark important life events like births, marriages, and deaths. How easy or hard it is to leave a religion can differ a lot. Some places allow freedom of religion, while others have very strict rules.

Social organisation

Religions often have a community part. They might be passed down by everyday people or led by special groups called a clergy. There are usually clear ideas about who belongs to the religion and who doesn’t.

Academic study

Main articles: Religious studies and Classifications of religious movements

Many subjects study religion, including theology, comparative religion, history of religion, evolutionary origin of religions, anthropology of religion, psychology of religion (including neuroscience of religion and evolutionary psychology of religion), law and religion, and sociology of religion.

Daniel L. Pals talks about eight important ideas about religion. These ideas come from different thinkers like E.B. Tylor, J.G. Frazer, Sigmund Freud, Émile Durkheim, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Mircea Eliade, E.E. Evans-Pritchard, and Clifford Geertz.

Michael Stausberg looks at newer ideas about religion, including how our minds and bodies understand it.

Theories

Main article: Theories of religion

Sociological and anthropological theories try to explain where religion comes from and what it does. They look for common parts in religious beliefs and actions.

Origins and development

Main article: History of religion

No one really knows where religion began. There are many ideas about how religious practices started.

Anthropologists John Monaghan and Peter Just say that many big religions began when a special person, called a prophet, inspired others. These prophets helped people find answers to their problems. Over time, groups of followers helped keep these ideas alive.

Religion grows differently in different places. Some focus on what people believe, others on what they do. Some think everyone should follow the same rules, while others are just for small groups. In many places, religion is linked to schools, hospitals, families, governments, and leaders.

John Monoghan and Peter Just also say that religion helps people deal with hard times and big problems. Religious ideas give people ways to understand the world and cope with sadness or misfortune.

Cultural system

Religion is hard to describe, but one way to think about it comes from Clifford Geertz. He called it a "cultural system". Some scholars see religion and culture as two different things that still affect each other.

Social constructionism

Main article: Social constructionism

Some modern scholars think that the idea of religion comes mostly from Christianity. They believe it was then used to describe other cultures in ways that might not fit. This idea is called social constructionism.

Cognitive science

Main article: Cognitive science of religion

Cognitive science of religion studies how people think and behave in religious ways. It uses ideas from many areas, like cognitive psychology, evolutionary psychology, cognitive anthropology, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, neurobiology, zoology, and ethology. Researchers want to understand how people learn, share, and pass on religious ideas using normal brain processes.

Comparativism

Main article: Comparative religion

Comparative religion compares the beliefs and practices of different religions. This helps us understand big questions about life, like ethics, what is real, and how people can find peace. Studying these ideas helps us see how people think about things that are holy, powerful, and spiritual.

In comparative religion, the main religions of the world are often grouped by where they started. These groups include Middle Eastern religions, Indian religions, East Asian religions, African religions, American religions, Oceanic religions, and classical Hellenistic religions.

Classification

Main article: History of religion

In the past, scholars often grouped religions into three main types: big world religions that are found all over the world, smaller religions tied to specific cultures or nations, and newer religions that have only recently appeared. Some thinkers today say it's tricky to neatly put every practice into one box, since many beliefs mix with culture, politics, and social life.

Morphological classification

Some experts talk about two kinds of religions. One kind tries to welcome people from everywhere, looking for new followers. Examples include the Baháʼí Faith, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Jainism. The other kind is linked to a specific group of people and usually doesn’t look for new followers. Not everyone agrees with this split, though, because they think all religions come from particular cultures.

Demographic classification

Main articles: Major religious groups and List of religious populations

The biggest groups of believers in the world include Christians, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, and people who follow traditional folk beliefs. In a survey from 2012, about 59% of people around the world said they were religious. By 2015, this number had risen to 63%. Generally, women tend to be more religious than men. Some people follow more than one set of religious beliefs at the same time. Scholars think the number of religious people might be growing because families in religious countries often have more children.

Specific religions

Main article: List of religions and spiritual traditions

Abrahamic

Abrahamic religions are monotheistic religions which believe they descend from Abraham.

Judaism

Main article: Judaism

Judaism is the oldest Abrahamic religion, originating in the people of ancient Israel and Judah. The Torah is its most important book, and it is part of a larger collection called the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. It also includes traditions written down later, like the Midrash and the Talmud. Judaism has many practices, beliefs, and ways of organizing. There are several groups within Judaism, such as Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Judaism.

Christianity

Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Christians believe in Jesus as the Son of God and their Savior. Most Christians believe in the Trinity, which means they believe in one God who exists as three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. Christianity spread around the world through missionary work and is the largest religion today, with about 2.3 billion followers. The main groups in Christianity are the Catholic Church, Eastern Christianity, and Protestantism.

Islam

Islam is a monotheistic religion based on the Quran and the teachings of the prophet Muhammad. Islam believes in one God and accepts the prophets from earlier Abrahamic religions. It is widely practiced in Southeast Asia, North Africa, Western Asia, and Central Asia. There are about 1.8 billion Muslims today. The two main groups in Islam are Sunni Islam and Shia Islam.

Other

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are the three most popular Abrahamic faiths, but there are also smaller and newer traditions.

For example, the Baháʼí Faith, founded in 19th-century Iran, teaches the unity of all great religious traditions and accepts prophets from many faiths. Even smaller regional Abrahamic groups also exist, including Samaritanism, the Rastafari movement, and Druze.

East Asian

East Asian religions include Taoism and Confucianism, as well as folk religions like Chinese folk religion. Other folk and new religions in East Asia include Korean shamanism, Shinto in Japan, and Vietnamese folk religion.

Indian religions

Indian religions include Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism.

Hinduism is one of the oldest religions, with beliefs in karma, reincarnation, and many deities.

Jainism teaches non-violence and truth, aiming for freedom from the cycle of birth and death.

Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama and focuses on ending suffering and achieving peace.

Sikhism was founded in the 15th century and emphasizes faith in one God and social justice.

Indigenous and folk

Indigenous religions or folk religions are traditional beliefs tied to specific groups of people. These often include shamanism, animism, and ancestor worship. Examples include Australian Aboriginal religions and Native American religions.

Traditional African

African traditional religion includes beliefs from many different groups across Africa, such as the Yoruba religion and Zulu mythology. There are also African diasporic religions practiced in the Americas, such as Santeria and Vodun.

Iranian

Iranian religions include Zoroastrianism, based on the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster, which worships the creator Ahura Mazda.

New religious movements

New religious movements include groups like the Baháʼí Faith, Cao Đài in Vietnam, Scientology, and Wicca. These are newer religions that have developed in recent history.

Related aspects

Law

Main article: Law and religion

The study of how laws and religions connect is a new area of learning. Experts look at how religious beliefs shape laws and how courts talk about religion. They study rules made by religious groups, natural ideas of right and wrong, and laws made by governments. People also learn about how religion and fairness mix in history, like in Christianity. Some topics are marriage, family life, and human rights. Scholars also study how religion links to law in places like the Middle East and ancient Rome.

Science

Main articles: Faith and rationality, Relationship between religion and science, and Epistemology

Science uses testing and evidence to learn about the world. Religions use faith, holy writings, and deep thinking to understand life and the universe. Both science and religion change over time. Science tests ideas to find facts about the universe. Religion tries to find meaning and explain our place in the world. Even though they study different things, they can help each other in some ways.

Morality

Main article: Morality and religion

Many religions teach right from wrong to guide people. Examples include promises in Jainism, rules in Judaism, laws in Islam, and paths in Buddhism. But right and wrong can also come from ideas that are not religious. Studying how religion and morality connect can be tricky because of different views and ways of thinking.

Politics

Impact

Religion often shapes politics in many countries. For example, some countries follow Islamic law called sharia. In the United States, many leaders are Christian, and voters may prefer candidates who believe in a god. In Europe, religion used to have more power, but now it has less. In places like India, religion still strongly affects politics, while in China and Japan, it has less influence.

Secularism

Main articles: Secularism and Secularization

Secularization means a country’s politics change from focusing on one religion to more general, non-religious ideas. This helps modern life and respects people with different beliefs.

Economics

Main article: Economics of religion

Some studies show that richer countries often have fewer people who call themselves very religious. Some believe that Protestant Christian countries became wealthy because of their strong work ethic. Different groups hold different amounts of wealth around the world.

Health

Studies show that being involved in a religion and thinking about spiritual things can help people stay healthy, feel happier, and live longer. But the way this works can be complex and different for each person.

Superstition

Further information: Superstition, Magical thinking, and Magic and religion

Long ago, some people were scared of gods and called this fear superstition. Some think that superstition is not logical, while religion is more deep and organized. Some religions might include superstitions or magical ideas. People of one religion might see others’ beliefs as superstition.

Agnosticism and atheism

Main articles: Atheism, Agnosticism, Irreligion, and Humanism

Some people do not believe in gods (atheists) or think we cannot know if gods exist (agnostics). These ideas are not the same as having no religion at all. Some religions, like Buddhism, include people who do not believe in gods.

Interfaith cooperation

Main article: Interfaith dialogue

Many religious people work together to solve problems and share ideas. Big meetings like the Parliament of the World’s Religions help different groups talk and understand each other better. Recent efforts bring together leaders from Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and more to work for peace.

Criticism

Main article: Criticism of religion

People sometimes question the ideas, truths, and practices of religion. They also look at how religion affects politics and society.