Russian literature

Russian literature is the rich tradition of writing from Russia and its people, including those who write in the Russian language. It began in the Early Middle Ages when Old Church Slavonic was used for religious texts, while everyday stories were told in the native Russian language. Over time, Russian literature grew and became very important, especially during a period called the "Golden Age" in the early 1800s. Many famous writers appeared then, like Alexander Pushkin, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and Leo Tolstoy, who are still read and loved around the world today.

After the Russian Revolution in 1917, literature in Russia changed. Some writers lived inside the Soviet Union, while others had to leave their homes and write from other countries. The Soviet government sometimes made it hard for writers to share their ideas freely. Despite this, many amazing books were still written. In more recent times, new voices have emerged, bringing fresh ideas and stories to readers.

Russia has produced five winners of the Nobel Prize in Literature, showing how much the world values its writers. Today, Russia remains one of the biggest producers of books and is known for loving its literature very much. As one scholar said, "No country has ever valued literature more than Russia."

Old oral literature

See also: Russian folklore

Oral literature, including pagan myths and prayers, ceremonial poetry, zagovory (evocations), charms, byliny (heroic epics), legends, fairy tales, folksongs, and others, in the languages of the East Slavic tribes, and later in the Old Russian vernacular and its dialects, is older than written literature and grew alongside it.

Professional storytelling existed, with bards of druzhiny like Boyan playing the gusli and wandering skomorokhi. For a long time, folk literature was not written down during the Kievan and Muscovite periods because of its pagan nature, and much of it was lost. In the Middle Ages, folklore was enjoyed by everyone, from peasants to warriors and the knyaz-boyar aristocracy. When writing became common, oral and written stories existed together, each with its own styles, and sometimes mixed. Early examples include the Legend of the Founding of Kiev and the Legend of the brothers Radim and Vyatko, which were added to Russian chronicles after being changed a little. A later example is The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom, which uses local stories and fantastic tales.

Заслышал Скимен-зверь невзгодушку:
Уж как на небе родился светел месяц,
На земле-то народился могуч богатырь.

— From the bylina called The Birth of a Knight-errant (Russian: Рождение богатыря).

Medieval and early modern era

Scholars use different names to describe Russian literature from the 11th to 17th centuries, linking it to the time before the reforms of Peter the Great. During this time, many literary works were written in a special form of the Russian language called Church Slavonic, mixed with everyday Russian words.

Besides religious books, there were also epic poems called byliny, folk songs, and practical documents like laws and letters. One of the oldest surviving books is the Novgorod Codex, a wooden tablet with wax pages, found in Veliky Novgorod. Another early book is the Ostromir Gospels, written in 1056–1057.

Many important books from this time were chronicles, records of history written by unknown authors. The oldest is the Primary Chronicle, and one famous story is The Tale of Igor's Campaign. Other popular types of writing included stories about saints' lives and journeys to holy places. In the 16th century, important books helped explain the rules for family life and the power of the tsar. By the 17th century, new styles of writing began to appear, influenced by other cultures.

Age of Enlightenment, 18th century

After Peter the Great became ruler at the end of the 17th century, his changes greatly shaped Russian culture well into the 18th century. Peter’s rule brought new ideas and styles, encouraging writers to think differently about the Russian language and literature. This period laid the groundwork for more powerful and important works later in the century.

Writers like Antiokh Dmitrievich Kantemir praised Peter’s reforms and the ideas of the Enlightenment in Europe. Kantemir used satire to criticize what he saw as Russia’s backward ways. Another writer, Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky, translated important works into everyday Russian, helping make literature more accessible. Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov also supported using simple language, inspired by Peter’s push for change. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov wrote about grand themes, mixing everyday language with more formal styles.

During Catherine the Great’s time, writers tackled more daring topics. Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev wrote about the hard lives of serfs, which upset the Empress. Others, like Nikolay Karamzin, focused on emotions and new ideas in writing. Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin praised Catherine II in his poems, while Denis Fonvizin used comedy to criticize the Russian nobility.

Golden Age

See also: Romanticism § Russia, and List of romantics § Russian Romanticism

The 19th century is called the "Golden Era" of Russian literature. This time was full of wonderful poetry. Two important writers were Vasily Zhukovsky and Alexander Pushkin. Pushkin helped shape the Russian language and made literature more beautiful. His most famous work is a story told in poems called Eugene Onegin. Other famous poets included Konstantin Batyushkov, Pyotr Vyazemsky, Yevgeny Baratynsky, Fyodor Tyutchev, and Dmitry Venevitinov. There were also novelists like Antony Pogorelsky, Alexander Bestuzhev, and Vladimir Odoyevsky.

After Pushkin, many new writers followed his style. Mikhail Lermontov wrote poems and stories, including A Hero of Our Time, which is thought to be the first Russian story about a person’s inner feelings. Other important writers were Aleksey K. Tolstoy and Afanasy Fet.

Along with poetry, stories that told real-life events also became popular. The first big Russian story was Dead Souls by Nikolai Gogol. Later, Ivan Goncharov, Ivan Turgenev, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Leo Tolstoy became very famous around the world. Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote funny stories about life, and Nikolai Leskov was known for his short stories. At the end of the century, Anton Chekhov became a great writer of short stories and plays.

Other important writers from this time include Sergey Aksakov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Ivan Krylov, Aleksey Pisemsky, Vissarion Belinsky, Alexander Herzen, Aleksandr Griboyedov, Aleksandr Ostrovsky, Alexander Sukhovo-Kobylin, and Kozma Prutkov.

Silver Age

Main article: Silver Age of Russian poetry

The 1890s and the early 1900s are known as the Silver Age of Russian poetry. Famous poets from this time include Alexander Blok, Sergei Yesenin, Valery Bryusov, Konstantin Balmont, Mikhail Kuzmin, Igor Severyanin, Sasha Chorny, Nikolay Gumilyov, Maximilian Voloshin, Innokenty Annensky, and Zinaida Gippius. The most well-known poets are Anna Akhmatova, Marina Tsvetaeva, Osip Mandelstam, and Boris Pasternak.

Russian symbolism began in the 1890s, focusing on deep meaning and new ways of seeing. Important figures included Vladimir Solovyov, Valery Bryusov, Fyodor Sologub, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Konstantin Balmont, Alexander Blok, and Andrei Bely.

Some poets came from farming backgrounds and wrote about country life. Others tried new and bold styles, like Cubo-Futurism with strange sounds, Ego-Futurism focusing on the self, and Acmeism with clear and strong images.

The Silver Age wasn't just about poetry. It also had great novelists and story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin, Ivan Bunin, Vikenty Veresaev, Leonid Andreyev, and others.

During this time, Russian Formalism began, which studied how stories are built and told. It had a big effect on how people think about literature around the world. Russian thinkers also made important contributions during the Silver Age.

Soviet era

Early post-Revolutionary era

The first years of the Soviet regime after the October Revolution of 1917 saw many new literary groups forming, with proletarian literature gaining support. The Imaginists created poetry using striking images, and the Oberiu group, led by Daniil Kharms, explored absurdism. Famous writers from this time include Sergei Yesenin, Anatoly Marienhof, Rurik Ivnev, Boris Pilnyak, Yuri Olesha, Andrei Platonov, Artyom Vesyoly, Isaak Babel, and Mikhail Zoshchenko. The OPOJAZ group studied literary theory, and its members Viktor Shklovsky and Yury Tynyanov wrote influential works.

Vladimir Mayakovsky brought new ideas to poetry, focusing on politics and the revolution. His poems like "Ode to the Revolution" and "Left March" celebrated the changes in society. Nikolai Tikhonov became popular for his poems that praised workers and the revolution.

Émigré writers

After the revolution, many writers left Russia and continued writing in exile. These writers, known as émigré writers, included poets like Georgy Ivanov, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Vladislav Khodasevich, and Boris Poplavsky, as well as novelists such as M. Ageyev, Mark Aldanov, Gaito Gazdanov, and Vladimir Nabokov. Ivan Bunin, a Nobel Prize winner, wrote important works during his time in exile, including "The Life of Arseniev" and "Dark Avenues."

Stalinist era

In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the main style of writing in the Soviet Union. Writers who did not follow this style, like Osip Mandelstam, Daniil Kharms, Leonid Dobychin, Mikhail Bulgakov, and Andrei Platonov, faced criticism or were not allowed to publish. Some writers, such as Isaac Babel, Boris Pilnyak, and Artyom Vesyoly, were executed. Others, like Aleksey Tolstoy, Maxim Gorky, and Ilya Ehrenburg, returned from exile and supported the Soviet government.

Mikhail Sholokhov, known for his novel "Quiet Flows the Don," and Nikolai Ostrovsky, with his popular book "How the Steel Was Tempered," were celebrated for their works that fit the Socialist realist style. Alexander Fadeyev and Konstantin Paustovsky also wrote important books during this time.

Late Soviet era

After World War II, Boris Pasternak wrote "Doctor Zhivago," which caused controversy and led to him being denied a Nobel Prize. Many writers continued to work within the rules of Socialist realism, but some began to explore new styles. The Khrushchev Thaw in the 1950s allowed more freedom in literature, with books like Vladimir Dudintsev's "Not by Bread Alone" and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich" becoming famous.

The 1960s and 1970s saw the rise of new movements like the Sixtiers and Village Prose, which focused on personal experiences and rural life. Writers like Valentin Ovechkin, Alexander Yashin, and Vasily Shukshin became well-known. The Perestroika period in the 1980s brought even more change, with many previously banned books being published and new styles emerging.

Popular Soviet genres

Children’s literature was very important in the Soviet Union, with poets like Korney Chukovsky, Samuil Marshak, and Agnia Barto writing popular books. Early Soviet children’s books often retold fairy tales, and authors like Alexey N. Tolstoy and Alexander Volkov introduced fantasy stories. Arkady Gaydar wrote stories about young pioneers, and later writers like Eduard Uspensky and Yuri Entin created books without political messages.

Soviet science fiction grew during this time, with authors like Alexander Belyaev and Grigory Adamov writing adventures inspired by science and space travel. The Strugatsky brothers and Kir Bulychev explored social issues through their stories. Space opera and children’s science fiction also developed, with series like Alisa Selezneva’s adventures becoming popular.

Historical fiction often focused on the Revolution and World War II, with authors like Valentin Katayev, Lev Kassil, and Mikhail Sholokhov writing about these events. Mystery and spy stories were also popular, with authors like the Vayner Brothers and Yulian Semyonov writing bestsellers. Village Prose, which looked back at rural life, was another important genre, with writers like Valentin Rasputin and Viktor Astafyev gaining fame.

Bronze Age

Post-Soviet 1990s

The end of the 20th century was a tough time for Russian literature. With the end of strict rules on what writers could say, many struggled because of the chaos and problems in the country. Fewer books were printed, and some important magazines stopped working.

Big names from this time include Victor Pelevin, known for his creative stories, and Vladimir Sorokin, who wrote in very unusual ways. Other important writers were Lyudmila Petrushevskaya, Anatoly Korolyov, Yevgeni Popov, Tatyana Tolstaya, and Vladimir Sharov.

Many writers kept the old style but added new ideas. Others, like Leonid Leonov and Viktor Astafyev, continued telling deep stories. New voices appeared, too, such as female writers like Viktoriya Tokareva and Lyudmila Ulitskaya.

Detective and thriller stories became very popular, with authors like Alexandra Marinina and Boris Akunin writing books that many people loved. Science fiction and fantasy also grew, with writers like Sergey Lukyanenko and Maria Semenova leading the way.

21st century

In the early 2000s, Victor Pelevin and Vladimir Sorokin kept writing important books. New writers like Alexei Ivanov and Mikhail Elizarov also started making their mark.

After 2022, many writers who spoke out against certain political ideas left Russia, and their books were no longer sold in many places.

Newer writers brought fresh styles, and poetry saw new voices and ideas. Two big prizes for books, the Big Book and the National Bestseller, became very important.

List of movements

This is a list of international and regional literary movements that are part of Russian literature. The movements are listed in order of when they first appeared.

Russian Nobel laureates in literature

Further information: List of Nobel laureates in Literature

Some Russian writers have won the Nobel Prize for literature. These writers include:

1. Ivan Bunin (1933)
2. Boris Pasternak (1958)
3. Mikhail Sholokhov (1965)
4. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1970)
5. Joseph Brodsky (1987)
6. Svetlana Alexievich (2015)