Second Sino-Japanese War

The Second Sino-Japanese War, known in China as the War of Resistance Against Japan, was a major conflict fought between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan and its puppet states from 1937 to 1945. This war is often seen as the start of World War II in Asia because the battles became closely linked with the larger global war that followed. It was the largest war in Asia during the 20th century.

It began after a staged event called the Mukden incident, which Japan used as an excuse to invade parts of China. Fighting spread across the country, with both Chinese Nationalist and Communist forces working together against the Japanese invasion. Major battles took place in cities like Shanghai and Nanjing. The war caused huge suffering, with many civilian lives lost and widespread destruction.

As the war continued, Japan brought in new tactics, including attacks using biological and chemical weapons. With help from allies like the Soviet Union early on and later the United States, China kept fighting until Japan finally surrendered in 1945. The war had a huge impact on the world, helping shape the end of World War II and the future of Asia.

Names

Chinese

In both China and Taiwan, this war is often called the "War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression." People sometimes shorten this to just "Resistance against Japanese Aggression" or "the War of Resistance." Some also refer to it as the "Eight Years' War of Resistance," counting the war from 1937 to 1945.

Since 2017, the Chinese Communist Party has said the war began earlier, in 1931, calling it the "Fourteen Years' War of Resistance." This means they see the fight in Manchuria from 1931 to 1937 as part of the bigger war.

Japanese

In Japan, this conflict is most often called the "Japan–China War." Some in Japan think of it as a "Fifteen-Year War," starting with the invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and ending with the atomic bombings.

When the fighting spread to areas near Beijing in 1937, Japan called it "The North China Incident." Later, when battles reached Shanghai, Japan changed the name to "The China Incident." Japan used the word "incident" instead of "war" because neither country had officially declared war on the other. This helped avoid getting other countries involved, like the United States and the United Kingdom.

During this time, Japan described the invasion as a "holy war" and part of a big plan called "eight corners of the world under one roof." By December 1941, when both sides officially declared war, Japan called it the "Greater East Asia War."

Even though Japan still uses the term "China Incident" in official documents, the word they used for China is seen as rude by Chinese people. So, Japanese media often use different phrases instead. The name "Second Sino-Japanese War" isn’t commonly used in Japan because the earlier war between Japan and China, led by the Qing dynasty, is called the Qing-Japanese War.

Background

Japanese expansion

Further information: First Sino-Japanese War, Russo-Japanese War, Japan during World War I, and Twenty One Demands

The First Sino-Japanese War happened between 1894 and 1895. Japan won and China lost. After the war, China had to give up Taiwan and let Korea become independent. Japan also took some islands called the Senkaku Islands.

In 1905, Japan beat Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. Japan got some land and control over Korea. In 1915, Japan made many demands on China to get more power there. After World War I, Japan took some areas from Germany in Shandong province. This made many people in China very unhappy.

Warlord Era

Main article: Warlord Era

The government in China was very weak and fighting between different groups called warlords. This made China poor and easy for other countries to attack. Japan wanted to take more land from China.

Nationalist reunification

Main article: Northeast Flag Replacement

Further information: Northern Expedition

To bring China together, a group called the Kuomintang started a big movement from 1926 to 1928. They fought to remove the warlords. There were some fights with Japanese soldiers, which made the relationship between China and Japan worse.

Start of the Chinese Civil War

Main article: Chinese Civil War

In 1930, fighting began between different groups in China. The Chinese Communist Party kept growing. The leader of China, Chiang Kai-shek, thought it was important to first stop the fighting inside China before fighting Japan. He tried to remove the Communists. By 1934, the Communists had to move to a place called Yan'an. In 1936, Chiang was forced to work with the Communists to fight Japan together.

Pre-war events

Invasion of Manchuria

Main article: Japanese invasion of Manchuria

Japan wanted control of Manchuria because it had many resources and could be a market for Japan's goods. After winning a war in 1905, Japan had already placed many soldiers there. By 1915, Japan had gained control over railroads, businesses, and natural resources in the area.

In 1931, Japanese soldiers damaged a railroad to use as an excuse to invade. After fighting for five months, Japan created a new state called Manchukuo in 1932 and put the last Chinese emperor, Puyi, in charge. China asked for help from the League of Nations, but no one took strong action against Japan.

From 1931 to 1937, China's leader Chiang Kai-shek did not fight back much, but he started preparing for war in secret.

Fighting continued after the railroad incident. In 1932, Chinese and Japanese troops fought in Shanghai, leading to Shanghai being a place where no troops could be kept. In Manchukuo, groups formed to resist Japan. The Chinese Communist Republic also declared war on Japan.

Demilitarized zones

In 1933, Japan attacked near the Great Wall. The Tanggu Truce let Japan control Rehe Province and created a demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and Beijing-Tianjin. Japan wanted to protect its new state, Manchukuo, and used China's inner conflicts to weaken its opponents.

Japan helped set up governments in northern China that supported them. By the end of 1935, China had lost control of northern areas. New governments were formed in Hebei and Chahar with Japan's support. Resistance groups kept fighting Japan in these areas.

Course of the war

1937: Outbreak of full-scale war

Marco Polo Bridge incident

Main article: Marco Polo Bridge incident

On the night of 7 July 1937, Chinese and Japanese troops exchanged fire near the Marco Polo (or Lugou) Bridge about 16 km from Beijing. The fighting grew into a larger battle weeks later. However, talks continued even after the Battle of Shanghai with the Trautmann mediation and Nine Power Treaty Conference. Full war began after the Battle of Nanking and Nanjing Massacre, when Fumimaro Konoe declared that Japan would no longer negotiate with Chiang Kai-Shek. Unlike Japan, China was unprepared for war and had little military strength, no mechanized divisions, and few armoured forces. Soon after 1937, local Chinese guerrilla forces organized on their own. These typically joined either the Communist or Nationalist forces. Within the first year of full-scale war, Japanese forces won in most major Chinese cities.

On 7 July, units of the Japanese China Garrison Army crossed the border to conduct military exercises at night, claiming Private Shimura Kikujiro went missing and demanded entry to the walled city of Wanping. The Chinese garrison of the 29th Army refused. Fire was exchanged in the confusion. The question of "who fired first" and provoked the incident is highly contested, and the exact cause of this incident remains unknown. Despite the initial fighting, a ceasefire was negotiated on July 11 in Beijing. The local Japanese military and General Qin Dechun agreed to a settlement: an apology, the withdrawal of Chinese troops from Wanping, and better control of "communists" in the area.

However, news of the ceasefire failed to reach the central military command of either China or Japan immediately, and both grew increasingly concerned. Chiang Kai-shek had ordered four Central Army divisions to move into Hebei, even though this violated the He–Umezu Agreement. The following day, the Konoe cabinet held the Five Minsters Conference, where the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff approved a plan that authorized the deployment of three infantry divisions from mainland Japan. Major General Ishiwara tried to oppose the plan as he advocated a policy of non-expansion, but eventually agreed as "to be prepared for any contingency if the situation becomes strained". Although the eventual news of the ceasefire prevented outright war, the arrival of new divisions and the resulting confusion caused tensions to rise. Military cable lines were constantly severed during the tensions.

Since October 1936, Moscow continuously proposed a mutual security pact with China, but the deal was never accepted, even after the Xi'an Incident. On 5 June 1937, Joseph Stalin again proposed a mutual security pact to China, but Foreign Minister Wang Chonghui only submitted it to Chiang a day after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident. Chiang immediately tried to accept the mutual security offer, but by then the USSR considered it too late and instead proposed a non-aggression pact. On 16 July, U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull issued a public statement of principles advocating for the "sanctity of treaties" and the "abstinence by all nations from use of force." Chiang Kai-shek had been closely monitoring Western reactions, and relied on a long-term strategy of obtaining support from the League of Nations and the world at large to punish Japan. However, as American policy followed what Hull summed up as "keeping this country out of war," the diplomatic signals were intentionally vague to retain impartiality.

On 17 July, Chiang Kai-shek delivered the Lushan Statement, framing the incident as a struggle for the nation's survival and declaring that China had reached its "limit of endurance." Chiang outlined his demands for peace to Japan, including that the 29th Army be allowed to move freely in the area. This statement essentially transformed the local incident into a national cause of resistance. Although Chiang was ready to accept the local ceasefire, he slowed the withdrawal from the area to gauge international response. On 25 July, the Langfang Incident occurred when Chinese troops engaged a Japanese communication repair unit. On 26 July, the Guanganmen Incident saw Japanese troops fired upon while attempting to enter Peiping's city gates to protect Japanese nationals. These incidents led the Japanese China Garrison Army to abandon diplomatic efforts and launch a military invasion.

Beiping–Tianjin campaign

Main article: Battle of Beiping–Tianjin

On 28 July 1937, the IJA 20th Division and three independent combined brigades launched an offensive against the Chinese 29th Army. The battle involved little combat within Beiping itself, as General Song Zheyuan ordered a general withdrawal of the 29th Army to avoid its total destruction. The Japanese captured the city on July 29 after the Chinese forces withdrew, and majority of intense fighting occurred at Tianjin. The Taku Forts at Tianjin fell on 30 July, concluding the campaign.

The Japanese Army had been given orders not to advance further than the Yongding River. The Konoe government's foreign minister opened negotiations with Chiang Kai-shek's government in Nanjing and stated: "Japan wants Chinese cooperation, not Chinese land." After the Tongzhou mutiny on 29 July, Chinese soldiers assigned to a Japanese-backed puppet government mutinied and killed approximately 200 Japanese and Korean civilians. This inflamed anti-Chinese sentiments in Japan, convinced many in the military that escalation in China was necessary.

Diplomatic maneuvering

On August 6, 1937, Soviet Ambassador Ivan Maisky reportedly assured Chinese officials that if the United States, England, and France offered mediation and Japan rejected it, "the Soviet Union would go to war on the side of China." Chiang Kai-shek, bolstered by these continued Russian promises of armed assistance, "personally wished to fight" rather than accept a diplomatic compromise with Japan.

Foreign Minister Kōki Hirota attempted to bring the conflict to a close through the "Funatsu Operation" on August 7. The plan was entrusted to Funatsu Tatsuichirō, a former consul-general. The Japanese hoped for the establishment of a larger demilitarized zone from Beiping to Tianjin, possible reecognition of Manchukuo, and a Sino-Japanese anti-communist pact. However, negotiations collapsed after the Ōyama Incident on 9 August, which occurred on the same day Funatsu arrived to meet with Chinese officials.

Battle of Shanghai

Main article: Battle of Shanghai

The Imperial General Headquarters (GHQ) in Tokyo was content with the gains acquired in northern China following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, initially showed reluctance to escalate the conflict into a full-scale war. However, the situation in Shanghai reached a breaking point on 9 August 1937, when the Ōyama Incident occurred with the shooting of two Japanese officers who were attempting to enter the Hongqiao military airport. The Japanese demanded that all Chinese forces withdraw from Shanghai; the Chinese outright refused to meet this demand.

In response, both the Chinese and the Japanese marched reinforcements into the Shanghai area. Chiang concentrated his best troops north of Shanghai in an effort to impress the city's large foreign community and increase China's foreign support. On 13 August 1937, Kuomintang soldiers attacked Japanese Marine positions in Shanghai, with Japanese army troops and marines in turn crossing into the city with naval gunfire support at Zhabei, leading to the Battle of Shanghai. On 14 August, Chinese forces under the command of Zhang Zhizhong were ordered to capture or destroy the Japanese strongholds in Shanghai, leading to bitter street fighting.

Chiang Kai-shek and his generals were influenced by assurances from Soviet Ambassador Dmitry Bogomolov, who had promised that China could expect support from the Soviet Union if it undertook armed resistance. The Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was signed on 21 August 21. The USSR delivered military aid through Operation Zet, including aircraft, tanks, equipment, and military advisors. However, the Soviet Union never directly intervened in the war like Chiang had hoped.

In late August, the Japanese Army landed reinforcements in northern Shanghai. Chinese commanders quickly rushed forces to counter the landings, resulting in heavy fighting including trench and urban warfare. Both sides suffered high casualty rates in the attrition.

As the battle in Shanghai continued, Japan advanced along railway lines in the North, until they reached Jinan and the Yellow River. Alongside Mengjiang forces, Japan invaded Taiyuan and the North China area. By 26 October, the IJA had captured Dachang, a key strong-point within Shanghai, and on 5 November, additional reinforcements from Japan landed in Hangzhou Bay behind Chinese lines. On November 9, the 10th Army reinforced Hangzhou Bay, and the NRA began a general retreat. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) ultimately committed over 300,000 troops, along with numerous naval vessels and aircraft, to capture the city. After more than three months of intense fighting, their casualties far exceeded initial expectations. Japan did not immediately occupy the Shanghai International Settlement or the Shanghai French Concession, areas which were outside of China's control due to the treaty port system. Japan moved into these areas after its 1941 declaration of war against the United States and the United Kingdom.

Fall of Nanjing

Main article: Battle of Nanking

Following the Battle of Shanghai, the Army General Staff imposed an "operation restriction line" up to the cities of Suzhou and Jiaxing with the aim of ending the war. Konoe's government presented peace terms to Chiang Kai-shek through the Trautmann Mediation. These term included no demands for territorial annexation, but rather requirements for economic cooperation and an anti-communist pact. Chiang may have been encouraged to hold out in hopes of a Western intervention, after U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt delivered his Quarantine Speech in Chicago on October 5, advocating for an international quarantine of aggressor nations. Japan was invited to the Nine Power Treaty Conference in Brussels, but this was denied by Hirota who believed it would 'merely result in bolstering up China and in prolonging rather than shortening the warfare.' While Chiang secretly hoped for FDR to take action to immediately end the war with Japan, the conference ultimately failed to impose sanctions on Japan,

The Japanese military's non-expansion policy was discarded when Japanese generals disobeyed orders and began to pursue retreating Chinese forces past the restriction line on November 19, aiming to encircle Nanjing. The Japanese Army General Staff then authorized the capture of Nanjing on November 28, 1937, to force a conclusion to the conflict.

In November 1937, the Japanese concentrated 220,000 soldiers and began a campaign against Nanjing . Building on the hard-won victory in Shanghai, the IJA advanced on and captured the KMT capital city of Nanjing (December 1937) and Northern Shanxi (September – November 1937).

Japanese forces inflicted heavy casualties on the Chinese soldiers defending the city, killing approximately 50,000 of them including 17 Chinese generals. Upon the capture of Nanjing, Japanese committed massive war atrocities including mass murder and rape of Chinese civilians after 13 December 1937, which has been referred to as the Nanjing Massacre. Over the next several weeks, Japanese troops perpetrated numerous mass executions and tens of thousands of rapes. The army looted and burned the surrounding towns and the city, destroying more than a third of the buildings. The number of Chinese killed in the massacre has been subject to much debate, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to more than 300,000. The numbers agreed upon by most scholars are provided by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, which estimate at least 200,000 murders and 20,000 rapes.

The Japanese atrocities in Nanjing, especially following the Chinese defense of Shanghai, increased international goodwill for the Chinese people and the Chinese government. The Nationalist government re-established itself in Chongqing, which became the wartime seat of government until 1945. Following the capture of Nanjing, Chiang Kai-shek was now willing to accept Japan's initial proposal. However, the Japanese government hardened its terms drastically with the inclusion of the recognition of Manchukuo. Peace negotiations broke down and Chiang Kai-shek failed to respond by the January 12, 1938 deadline. Prime Minister Konoe issued the First Konoe Statement on January 16, 1938, declaring: "We will no longer deal with the government of Chiang Kai-shek." This effectively severed relations and committed Japan to a total war of regime change.

Xinjiang rebellion

Main article: Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)

In 1937, then pro-Soviet General Sheng Shicai invaded Dunganistan accompanied by Soviet troops to defeat General Ma Hushan of the KMT 36th Division. General Ma expected help from Nanjing, but did not receive it. The Nationalist government was forced to deny these maneuvers as "Japanese propaganda", as it needed continued military supplies from the Soviets.

1938: Strategic retreat

Xuzhou and Wuhan

Further information: Battle of Xuzhou and Battle of Wuhan

By January 1938, most conventional Kuomintang forces had either been defeated or no longer offered major resistance to Japanese advances. KMT forces won a few victories in 1938 (the Battle of Taierzhuang and the Battle of Wanjialing) but were generally ineffective that year. By March 1938, the Japanese controlled almost all of North China. Communist-led rural resistance to the Japanese remained active, however. Following the fall of Shanghai and Nanjing in late 1937, the Nationalist military command began a war of attrition known as "trading space for time" (以空間換時間). By gradually withdrawing into China's vast interior and establishing the rugged southwestern province of Sichuan as a final defensive base, the Guomindang intended to over-extend Japanese supply lines while reconstituting its depleted central armies.

With many victories achieved, Japanese field generals escalated the war in Jiangsu in an attempt to wipe out the Chinese forces in the area. The Japanese managed to overcome Chinese resistance around Bengbu and the Teng xian, but were fought to a halt at Linyi. The Japanese were then decisively defeated at the Battle of Taierzhuang (March–April 1938), where the Chinese used night attacks and close-quarters combat to overcome Japanese advantages in firepower. The Chinese also severed Japanese supply lines from the rear, forcing the Japanese to retreat in the first Chinese victory of the war. The Japanese then attempted to surround and destroy the Chinese armies in the Xuzhou region with an enormous pincer movement. However the majority of the Chinese forces, some 200,000–300,000 troops in 40 divisions, managed to break out of the encirclement and retreat to defend Wuhan, the Japanese's next target.

Following Xuzhou, the IJA changed its strategy and deployed almost all of its existing armies in China to attack the city of Wuhan, which had become the political, economic and military center of China, in hopes of destroying the fighting strength of the NRA and forcing the KMT government to negotiate for peace. On 6 June, they captured Kaifeng, the capital of Henan, and threatened to take Zhengzhou, the junction of the Pinghan and Longhai railways. The Japanese forces, numbering some 400,000 men, were faced by over 1 million NRA troops in the Central Yangtze region. Having learned from their defeats at Shanghai and Nanjing, the Chinese had adapted themselves to fight the Japanese and managed to check their forces on many fronts, slowing and sometimes reversing the Japanese advances, as in the case of Wanjialing. To overcome Chinese resistance, Japanese forces frequently deployed poison gas and committed atrocities against civilians, such as a "mini-Nanjing Massacre" in the city of Jiujiang upon its capture. After four months of intense combat, the Nationalists were forced to abandon Wuhan by October, and its government and armies retreated to Chongqing. Both sides had suffered tremendous casualties in the battle, with the Chinese losing up to 500,000 soldiers killed or wounded, and the Japanese up to 200,000.

Yellow River flood

1939–1941: Stalemate

Chinese counter-offensives

By 1939, the Nationalist army had withdrawn to the southwest and northwest of China and the Japanese controlled the coastal cities that had been centres of Nationalist power. From 1939 to 1945, China was divided into three regions: Japanese-occupied territories (Lunxianqu), the Nationalist-controlled region (Guotongqu), and the Communist-controlled regions (Jiefangqu, or liberated areas). During this period, the main Chinese objective was to drag out the war for as long as possible in a war of attrition, thereby exhausting Japanese resources while it was building up China's military capacity. American general Joseph Stilwell called this strategy "winning by outlasting".

From the beginning of 1939, the war entered a new phase with the unprecedented defeat of the Japanese at Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang and First Battle of Changsha. General Ma Biao also led Hui, Salar and Dongxiang cavalry to defeat the Japanese at the Battle of Huaiyang in the summer of 1939. In 1939, Mao Zedong wrote The Greatest Crisis under Current Conditions, calling for more active resistance against Japan and for the strengthening of the Second United Front. The Chinese launched their first large-scale counter-offensive against the IJA in December 1939; however, due to its low military-industrial capacity and limited experience in modern warfare, this offensive was defeated. Afterwards Chiang could not risk any more all-out offensive campaigns given the poorly trained, under-equipped, and disorganized state of his armies and opposition to his leadership both within the Kuomintang and in China in general. He had lost a substantial portion of his best trained and equipped troops in the Battle of Shanghai and was at times unable to command his generals effectively, who maintained a high degree of autonomy from the central KMT government.

After 1940, the Japanese encountered tremendous difficulties in administering and garrisoning the seized territories, and tried to solve their occupation problems by implementing a strategy of creating friendly puppet governments favourable to Japanese interests in the territories conquered. This included prominently the regime headed by Wang Jingwei, one of Chiang's rivals in the KMT. However, atrocities committed by the Imperial Japanese Army, as well as Japanese refusal to delegate any real power, left the puppets very unpopular and largely ineffective. The only success the Japanese had was to recruit a large Collaborationist Chinese Army to maintain public security in the occupied areas. By 1941, Japan occupied most of the eastern coastal areas of China and Vietnam, though guerrilla fighting continued in these areas. Japan had suffered high casualties resulting from unexpectedly stubborn Chinese resistance, and neither side could make any swift progress in the manner of Nazi Germany in western Europe.

By 1943, Guangdong had experienced famine. As the situation worsened, Chinese in New York received a letter stating that 600,000 people died in Siyi by starvation. Local Chinese resistance forces, organized separately by both the CCP and the KMT, continued their resistance in occupied areas to make Japanese administration over the vast land area of China difficult. In 1940, the Chinese Red Army launched a major offensive in north China, destroying railways and a major coal mine.

Three Alls Policy

Main article: Three Alls Policy

Japan had occupied much of north and coastal China by the end of 1941, but the KMT central government and military had retreated to the western interior to continue their resistance, while the Chinese communists remained in control of base areas in Shaanxi. From 1941 to 1942, Japan concentrated most of its forces in China in an effort to defeat the CCP bases behind Japan's lines. Aiming to decrease the Communists' human and material resources, the Japanese military implemented the Three Alls Policy ("Kill all, loot all, burn all").

In accordance with the policy, Japanese forces conducted massacres, slavery, deportations and mass rape across North and Central China. They destroyed numerous villages, deployed poison gas, and weaponized forced starvation against the rural countryside. These measures killed millions of Chinese civilians, but had a marginal effect on guerrilla activity. These destructive campaigns would persist until March 1945.

Collapse of the United Front

Main article: Second United Front

After the Mukden Incident in 1931, Chinese public opinion was strongly critical of Manchuria's leader, the "young marshal" Zhang Xueliang, for his non-resistance to the Japanese invasion, even though the Kuomintang central government was also responsible for this policy, giving Zhang an order to improvise while not offering support. After losing Manchuria to the Japanese, Zhang and his Northeast Army were given the duty of suppressing the Red Army in Shaanxi after their Long March. This resulted in great casualties for his Northeast Army, which received no support in manpower or weaponry from Chiang Kai-shek. In the Xi'an Incident on 12 December 1936, Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek in Xi'an, hoping to force an end to KMT–CCP conflict. Joseph Stalin, who viewed Chiang Kai-Shek as a crucial asset to the defense of his eastern borders, forced the CCP to negotiate with the KMT. To secure the release of Chiang, the KMT agreed to a temporary ceasefire with the Communists.

On 24 December, the two parties verbally agreed to a United Front against Japan. The beleaguered Communists, who agreed to form the New Fourth Army and the 8th Route Army under the nominal control of the NRA. In addition, Shaan-Gan-Ning and Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei border regions were created, under the control of the CCP. In Shaan-Gan-Ning, Communists in the Shaan-Gan-Ning Base Area fostered opium production, taxed it, and engaged in its trade—including selling to Japanese-occupied and KMT-controlled provinces. The Red Army fought alongside KMT forces during the Battle of Taiyuan, and the high point of their cooperation came in 1938 during the Battle of Wuhan. The formation of a united front fostered the legitimacy of the CCP, but the level of support the central government would provide to the communists was not settled. When compromise with the CCP failed to incentivize the Soviet Union to engage in an open conflict against Japan, the KMT withheld further support for the Communists. To strengthen their legitimacy, Communist forces actively engaged the Japanese early on. These operations weakened Japanese forces in Shanxi and other areas in the North.

Mao Zedong was distrustful of Chiang Kai-shek, however, and shifted strategy to guerrilla warfare in order to preserve the CCP's military strength. Despite Japan's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions, and the rich Yangtze River Valley in central China, the distrust between the two antagonists was scarcely veiled. The uneasy alliance began to break down by late 1938, partially due to the Communists' aggressive efforts to expand their military strength by absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces behind Japanese lines. Chinese militia who refused to switch their allegiance were often labelled "collaborators" and attacked by CCP forces. For example, the Red Army led by He Long attacked and wiped out a brigade of Chinese militia led by Zhang Yin-wu in Hebei in June 1939. Starting in 1940, open conflict between Nationalists and Communists became more frequent in the occupied areas outside of Japanese control, culminating in the New Fourth Army Incident in January 1941.

Afterwards, the Second United Front completely broke down and Chinese Communists leader Mao Zedong outlined the preliminary plan for the CCP's eventual seizure of power from Chiang Kai-shek. Mao himself is quoted outlining the "721" policy, saying "We are fighting 70 percent for self development, 20 percent for compromise, and 10 percent against Japan". Mao began his final push for consolidation of CCP power under his authority, and his teachings became the central tenets of the CCP doctrine that came to be formalized as Mao Zedong Thought. The Communists also began to focus most of their energy on building up their sphere of influence wherever opportunities were presented, mainly through rural mass organizations, administrative, land and tax reform measures favouring poor peasants; while the Nationalists attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence by military blockade of areas controlled by CCP and fighting the Japanese at the same time. In April 1941, Soviet aid to China halted with the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact. The CCP formally stated that the pact was "a great victory for Soviet diplomacy" and "was beneficial to liberation throughout China."

Northwest resistance

Japan attempted to reach out to Chinese ethnic minorities in order to rally them to their side against the Han Chinese, but only succeeded with certain Manchu, Mongol, Uyghur, and Tibetan elements. The Japanese attempt to get the Muslim Hui people on their side failed, as many Chinese generals such as Bai Chongxi, Ma Hongbin, Ma Hongkui, and Ma Bufang were Hui. The Japanese attempted to approach Ma Bufang but were unsuccessful in making any agreement with him. Ma Bufang ended up supporting the anti-Japanese Imam Hu Songshan, who prayed for the destruction of the Japanese.

Ma became chairman (governor) of Qinghai in 1938 and commanded a group army. He was appointed because of his anti-Japanese inclinations, and was such an obstruction to Japanese agents trying to contact the Tibetans that he was called an "adversary" by a Japanese agent. During the offensive, Hui forces in Suiyuan under generals Ma Hongbin and Ma Buqing routed the Imperial Japanese Army and their puppet Inner Mongol forces and prevented the planned Japanese advance into northwest China. Ma Hongbin's father Ma Fulu had fought against Japanese in the Boxer Rebellion. Hui cemeteries were destroyed for military reasons. Many Hui fought in the war against the Japanese such as Bai Chongxi, Ma Hongbin, Ma Hongkui, Ma Bufang, Ma Zhanshan, Ma Biao, Ma Zhongying, Ma Buqing and Ma Hushan.

Qinghai Tibetans served in the Qinghai army against the Japanese. The Qinghai Tibetans view the Tibetans of Central Tibet (Tibet proper, ruled by the Dalai Lamas from Lhasa) as distinct and different from themselves, and even take pride in the fact that they were not ruled by Lhasa ever since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire. Xining was subjected to aerial bombardment by Japanese warplanes in 1941, causing all ethnicities in Qinghai to unite against the Japanese. General Han Youwen directed the defense of the city of Xining during air raids by Japanese planes.

Han survived an aerial bombardment by Japanese planes in Xining while he was being directed via telephone by Ma Bufang, who hid in an air-raid shelter in a military barracks. The bombing resulted in Han being buried in rubble, though he was later rescued. John Scott reported in 1934 that there was both strong anti-Japanese feeling and anti-Bolshevik among the Muslims of Gansu and he mentioned the Muslim generals Ma Fuxiang, Ma Qi, Ma Anliang and Ma Bufang who was chairman of Qinghai province when he stayed in Xining.

1942–1943: Allied entry

Further information: Pacific War

Embargoes

Japan had expected to extract economic benefits of its invasions of China and elsewhere, including in the form of fuel and raw material resources. As Japanese aggression continued, however, the United States responded with trade embargoes on various goods, including oil and petroleum (beginning December 1939) and scrap iron and munitions (beginning July 1940). The United States demanded that Japan withdraw from China and also refused to recognize Japan's occupations of the Indochinese countries. In spring 1941, trade negotiations between the United States and Japan failed. In July 1941, the United States froze Japanese financial assets and obtained Dutch and British agreements to also cut those countries' oil exports to Japan. This in turn prompted the Japanese decision to attack Pearl Harbor. The United States embargoed Japan in 1941 depriving it of shipments of oil and various other resources necessary to continue the war in China. This pressure, which was intended to disparage a continuation of the war and bring Japan into negotiation, resulted in the Attack on Pearl Harbor and Japan's drive south to procure from the resource-rich European colonies in Southeast Asia by force the resources which the United States had denied to them. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States declared war against Japan, and within days China joined the Allies in formal declaration of war against Japan, Germany and Italy. As the Western Allies entered the war against Japan, the Sino-Japanese War would become part of a greater conflict, the Pacific theatre of World War II. Japan's military action against the United States also restrained its capacity to conduct further offensive operations in China.

Foreign aid

After the Lend-Lease Act was passed in 1941, American financial and military aid began to trickle in. Claire Lee Chennault commanded the 1st American Volunteer Group (nicknamed the Flying Tigers), with American pilots flying American warplanes which were painted with the Chinese flag to attack the Japanese. He headed both the volunteer group and the uniformed U.S. Army Air Forces units that replaced it in 1942.

However, it was the Soviets that provided the greatest material help for China from 1937 into 1941, with fighter aircraft for the Nationalist Chinese Air Force and artillery and armour for the Chinese Army through the Sino-Soviet Treaty; Operation Zet also provided for a group of Soviet volunteer combat aviators to join the Chinese Air Force in the fight against the Japanese occupation from late 1937 through 1939. Almost immediately, Chinese troops achieved another decisive victory in the Battle of Changsha, which earned the Chinese government much prestige from the Western Allies. China was one of the "Big Four" Allied Powers during the war. President Franklin D. Roosevelt referred to the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and China as the world's "Four Policemen"; his primary reason for elevating China to such a status was the belief that after the war it would serve as a bulwark against the Soviet Union.

Tensions with Allied commanders

Chiang was named Allied commander-in-chief in the China theater in 1942. American general Joseph Stilwell served for a time as Chiang's chief of staff, while simultaneously commanding American forces in the China-Burma-India Theater. For many reasons, relations between Stilwell and Chiang soon broke down. Some historians (such as Barbara W. Tuchman) have suggested it was largely due to the corruption and inefficiency of the Kuomintang government, while others (such as Ray Huang and Hans van de Ven) have depicted it as a more complicated situation.

Stilwell had a strong desire to assume total control of Chinese troops and pursue an aggressive strategy, while Chiang preferred a patient and less expensive strategy of out-waiting the Japanese. Chiang continued to maintain a defensive posture despite Allied pleas to actively break the Japanese blockade, because China had already suffered tens of millions of war casualties and believed that Japan would eventually capitulate in the face of America's overwhelming industrial output. For these reasons the other Allies gradually began to lose confidence in the Chinese ability to conduct offensive operations from the Asian mainland, and instead concentrated their efforts against the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean Areas and South West Pacific Area, employing an island hopping strategy. Long-standing differences in national interest and political stance among China, the United States, and the United Kingdom remained in place.

Burma campaign

Main article: Burma campaign

Chiang Kai-shek continued to receive supplies from the United States. However, in contrast to the Arctic supply route to the Soviet Union which stayed open through most of the war, sea routes to China and the Yunnan–Vietnam Railway had been closed since 1940. Therefore, between the closing of the Burma Road in 1942 and its re-opening as the Ledo Road in 1945, foreign aid was largely limited to what could be flown in over "The Hump". In Burma, on 16 April 1942, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. Chinese forces advanced to northern Burma in late 1943, besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina, and captured Mount Song.

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was reluctant to devote British troops, many of whom had been routed by the Japanese in earlier campaigns, to the reopening of the Burma Road; Stilwell, on the other hand, believed that reopening the road was vital, as all China's mainland ports were under Japanese control. The Allies' "Europe first" policy did not sit well with Chiang, while the later British insistence that China send more and more troops to Indochina for use in the Burma Campaign was seen by Chiang as an attempt to use Chinese manpower to defend British colonial possessions. Chiang also believed that China should divert its crack army divisions from Burma to eastern China to defend the airbases of the American bombers that he hoped would defeat Japan through bombing, a strategy that American general Claire Lee Chennault supported but which Stilwell strongly opposed. In addition, Chiang voiced his support of the Indian independence movement in a 1942 meeting with Mohandas Gandhi, which further soured the relationship between China and the United Kingdom.

Most of China's industry had already been captured or destroyed by Japan, and the Soviet Union refused to allow the United States to supply China through the Kazakhstan into Xinjiang as the Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai had turned anti-Soviet in 1942 with Chiang's approval. For these reasons, the Chinese government never had the supplies and equipment needed to mount major counter-offensives. Despite the severe shortage of matériel, in 1943, the Chinese were successful in repelling major Japanese offensives in Hubei and Changde.

Indochina resistance

Main article: French Indochina in World War II

The Chinese Kuomintang also supported the Vietnamese Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (VNQDD) in its battle against French and Japanese imperialism. In Guangxi, Chinese military leaders were organizing Vietnamese nationalists against the Japanese. The VNQDD had been active in Guangxi and some of their members had joined the KMT army. Under the umbrella of KMT activities, a broad alliance of nationalists emerged. With Ho at the forefront, the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (Vietnamese Independence League, usually known as the Viet Minh) was formed and based in the town of Jingxi. The pro-VNQDD nationalist Ho Ngoc Lam, a KMT army officer and former disciple of Phan Bội Châu, was named as the deputy of Phạm Văn Đồng, later to be Ho's Prime Minister. The front was later broadened and renamed the Viet Nam Giai Phong Dong Minh (Vietnam Liberation League).

The Viet Nam Revolutionary League was a union of various Vietnamese nationalist groups, run by the pro Chinese VNQDD. Chinese KMT General Zhang Fakui created the league to further Chinese influence in Indochina, against the French and Japanese. Its stated goal was for unity with China under the Three Principles of the People, created by KMT founder Dr. Sun and opposition to Japanese and French Imperialists. The Revolutionary League was controlled by Nguyen Hai Than, who was born in China and could not speak Vietnamese. General Zhang shrewdly blocked the Communists of Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh from entering the league, as Zhang's main goal was Chinese influence in Indochina. The KMT utilized these Vietnamese nationalists during World War II against Japanese forces.

Franklin D. Roosevelt, through General Stilwell, privately made it clear that they preferred that the French not reacquire French Indochina (modern day Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) after the war was over. Roosevelt offered Chiang Kai-shek control of all of Indochina. It was said that Chiang Kai-shek replied: "Under no circumstances!" After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General Lu Han were sent by Chiang Kai-shek to northern Indochina (north of the 16th parallel) to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces there, and remained in Indochina until 1946, when the French returned. The Chinese used the VNQDD, the Vietnamese branch of the Chinese Kuomintang, to increase their influence in French Indochina and to put pressure on their opponents. Chiang Kai-shek threatened the French with war in response to maneuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh's forces against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and to renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for the Chinese withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region. Following France's agreement to these demands, the withdrawal of Chinese troops began in March 1946.

Aerial bombardment

Further information: Bombing of Chongqing

With Japanese casualties and costs mounting, the Imperial General Headquarters attempted to break Chinese resistance by ordering the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service and Imperial Japanese Army Air Service to launch the war's first massive air raids on civilian targets. Japanese raiders hit the Kuomintang's newly established provisional capital of Chongqing and most other major cities in unoccupied China, leaving many people either dead, injured, or homeless.

After the Doolittle Raid, the Imperial Japanese Army conducted a massive sweep through Zhejiang and Jiangxi, now known as the Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign, with the goal of finding the surviving American airmen, applying retribution on the Chinese who aided them and destroying air bases. The operation started 15 May 1942, with 40 infantry battalions and 15–16 artillery battalions but was repelled by Chinese forces in September.

During this campaign, the Imperial Japanese Army left behind a trail of devastation and also spread cholera, typhoid, plague and dysentery pathogens. Chinese estimates record that as many as 250,000 civilians, the vast majority of whom were destitute Tanka boat people and other pariah ethnicities unable to flee, may have died of disease. It caused more than 16 million civilians to evacuate far away deep inward China. Around 90% of Ningbo's population had already fled before battle started.

1944: Renewed offensives

Operation Ichi-Go

Main article: Operation Ichi-Go

In 1944, the Communists launched counteroffensives from the liberated areas against Japanese forces. Japan's 1944 Operation Ichi-Go was the largest military campaign of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The campaign mobilized 500,000 Japanese troops, 100,000 horses, 1,500 artillery pieces, and 800 tanks. Japanese forces advanced along Chinese railway lines and targeted American airfields. Chinese armies were poorly supplied and unprepared, and consequently lost 300,000 casualties along with large swathes of territory.

In late November 1944, the Japanese advance slowed approximately 300 miles from Chongqing as it experienced shortages of trained soldiers and materiel. Although Operation Ichi-Go achieved its goals of seizing United States air bases and establishing a potential railway corridor from Manchukuo to Hanoi, it did so too late to impact the result of the broader war. American bombers in Chengdu were moved to the Mariana Islands where, along with bombers from bases in Saipan and Tinian, they could still bomb the Japanese home islands.

The poor performance of Chiang Kai-shek's forces in opposing the Japanese advance during Operation Ichi-Go became widely viewed as demonstrating Chiang's incompetence. It irreparably damaged the Roosevelt administration's view of Chiang and the KMT. The campaign further weakened the Nationalist economy and government revenues. Because of the Nationalists' increasing inability to fund the military, Nationalist authorities overlooked military corruption and smuggling. The Nationalist army increasingly turned to raiding villages to press-gang peasants into service and force marching them to assigned units. Approximately 10% of these peasants died before reaching their units.

After Operation Ichi-Go, Chiang Kai-shek started a plan to withdraw Chinese troops from the Burma theatre against Japan in Southeast Asia for a counter offensive called "White Tower" and "Iceman" against Japanese soldiers in China in 1945. By the end of 1944, Chinese troops under the command of Sun Li-jen attacking from India, and those under Wei Lihuang attacking from Yunnan, joined forces in Mong-Yu, successfully driving the Japanese out of North Burma and securing the Ledo Road, China's vital supply artery. In the spring of 1945 the Chinese launched offensives that retook Hunan and Guangxi. With the Chinese army progressing well in training and equipment, Wedemeyer planned to launch Operation Carbonado in summer 1945 to retake Guangdong, thus obtaining a coastal port, and from there drive northwards toward Shanghai. However, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Soviet invasion of Manchuria hastened Japanese surrender and these plans were not put into action.

Ili Rebellion

Main article: Ili Rebellion

As the war went on, Nationalist General Ma Buqing was in virtual control of the Gansu corridor. Ma had earlier fought against the Japanese, but because the Soviet threat was great, Chiang in July 1942 directed him to move 30,000 of his troops to the Tsaidam marsh in the Qaidam Basin of Qinghai. Chiang further named Ma as Reclamation Commissioner, to threaten Sheng's southern flank in Xinjiang, which bordered Tsaidam.

The Ili Rebellion broke out in Xinjiang when the Kuomintang Hui Officer Liu Bin-Di was killed while fighting Turkic Uyghur rebels in November 1944. The Soviet Union supported the Turkic rebels against the Kuomintang, and Kuomintang forces fought back.

1945: Conclusion

Japanese surrender

Main article: Surrender of Japan

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese had consistent tactical successes but they failed to achieve strategic results. Although it seized the majority of China's industrial capacity, occupied most major cities, and rarely lost a battle, Japan's occupation of China was costly. Japan had approximately 50,000 military fatalities each year and 200,000 wounded per year.

In less than two weeks the Kwantung Army, which was the primary Japanese fighting force, consisting of over a million men but lacking in adequate armour, artillery, or air support, had been destroyed by the Soviets. Japanese Emperor Hirohito officially capitulated to the Allies on 15 August 1945. The official surrender was signed aboard the battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, in a ceremony where several Allied commanders including Chinese general Hsu Yung-chang were present.

After the Allied victory in the Pacific, General Douglas MacArthur ordered all Japanese forces within China (excluding Manchuria), Taiwan and French Indochina north of 16° north latitude to surrender to Chiang Kai-shek, and the Japanese troops in China formally surrendered on 9 September 1945, at 9:00. The ninth hour of the ninth day of the ninth month was chosen in echo of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 (on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month) and because "nine" (九 jiǔ) is a homophone of the word for "long lasting" in Chinese (to suggest that the peace won would last forever).

Chiang relied on American help in transporting Nationalist troops to regain control of formerly Japanese-occupied areas. Non-Chinese generally viewed the behavior of these troops as undercutting Nationalist legitimacy, and these troops engaged in corruption and looting, leading to widespread views of a "botched liberation". The Nationalist government seized Japanese-held businesses at the time of the Japanese surrender. The Nationalist government made little effort to return these businesses to their original Chinese owners. A mechanism existed through which Chinese and foreign owners could petition for the return of their former property. In practice, the Nationalist government and its officials retained a great deal of the seized property and embezzling property, particularly from warehouses, was common. Nationalist officials sometimes extorted money from individuals in liberated territories under threat of labeling them as Japanese collaborators. Chiang's focus on his communist opponents prompted him to leave Japanese troops or troops of the Japanese puppet regimes to remain on duty in occupied areas so as to avoid their surrender to Communist forces.

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Tactics

The Chinese forces used clever and brave tactics to fight back against the Japanese. They would lead the Japanese into traps where they could be ambushed or surrounded. One famous example was the defense of Changsha in 1939 and again in 1941, where many Japanese soldiers were hurt.

The Chinese also used very brave but risky tactics, where soldiers would attach explosives to themselves and run towards the enemy to blow themselves up. This was done to stop tanks and other big machines during battles like Shanghai and Taierzhuang.

Unfortunately, the Japanese used very harmful weapons during the war. They used poisonous gases that hurt and killed many Chinese soldiers and civilians. These gases were used many times, especially during big battles. They also used tiny living things to spread sickness, which caused many problems for the people living there. These actions were very wrong and caused a lot of suffering.

Economy

Chinese Industrial Cooperatives

Main article: Chinese Industrial Cooperatives

Further information: History of the cooperative movement in China and Gung Ho

The Second Sino-Japanese War caused big problems for China's economy. One of the first battles was at Shanghai in 1937, a major city for trade and industry. When the Japanese took control of Shanghai, it hurt China's ability to make and sell goods.

To help fix this, China created smaller groups called Chinese Industrial Cooperatives (CIC) in 1937. These groups set up small factories in towns away from the fighting. They made things needed for the war and gave jobs to people who had to leave their homes because of the conflict.

Even though many people supported the CIC, it was hard to build as many as planned. The goal was to create 30,000 of these small factories, but only about 2,000 were actually built. The name "Gung Ho" came from a misunderstanding of the Chinese words for these cooperatives, and it became a popular phrase meaning "work together."

Foreign aid

Further information: Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan

Before the Second Sino-Japanese War began, Germany had helped China by providing equipment and training to its army, including some air-combat training. Several countries, including the United States, Italy, and Japan, also provided training and equipment to different air force units in China before the war.

When full-scale war broke out between China and Japan, the Soviet Union became China's main supporter through the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact from 1937 to 1941.

Overseas Chinese

Over 3,200 overseas Chinese drivers and mechanics traveled to China to support military and supply lines, especially through Indo-China. This became very important when Japan cut off ocean access to China’s interior.

Overseas Chinese communities in the U.S. raised money and supported talent to help China. They helped fund a squadron of Boeing P-26 fighter planes for the war between China and Japan. Over a dozen Chinese-American pilots joined the Chinese air forces to fight against Japan’s invasion.

Korea

The exiled Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea based in Chongqing worked with Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalist Army against Japan. They formed the Korean Liberation Army to fight Japan in China.

Germany

Further information: China–Germany relations (1913–1941)

Before the war, Germany and China worked closely together economically and militarily. Germany helped China modernize its industry and military in exchange for raw materials. Germany sent military advisers to China to help reform its armed forces.

After Japan took Nanjing and China retreated, Germany decided to stop supporting China in 1938 and instead allied with Japan.

Soviet Union

After Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, the Soviet Union wanted to keep China fighting to prevent a Japanese invasion of Siberia. In 1937, they signed the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and formed a secret Soviet volunteer air force. They provided bombers, fighters, supplies, and advisors.

The Soviet Union provided the most foreign aid to China before the Western Allies, giving about $250 million in credits for weapons and supplies. They defeated Japan in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939, making Japan reluctant to fight them again.

In 1941, Soviet aid to China ended with the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact and the start of the Great Patriotic War. This pact let the Soviet Union avoid fighting both Germany and Japan at the same time. In 1945, the Soviet Union invaded parts of Japan’s occupied areas and continued to support the Chinese Communist Party.

United Kingdom

Further information: Mission 204 and British Army Aid Group

After some tensions, Britain began to support China during the war. The British public felt strongly for China, especially after a Japanese attack on a car carrying a British official.

Britain sent some unassembled Gloster Gladiator fighters to China through Hong Kong. Between July 1937 and November 1938, Britain shipped about 60,000 tons of weapons to China each month through Hong Kong.

When Japan took Hong Kong in 1941, the British Army Aid Group was formed to help prisoners of war escape from Japanese camps. They also gathered information, gave medical help, and supported Chinese civilians and soldiers.

A British-Australian commando operation called Mission 204 was created to train Chinese guerrilla troops. The mission had two phases, with the second phase starting in 1943 and helping Chinese forces fight Japan successfully before ending in 1944.

After Japan blocked the Burma Road in 1942, most supplies to China had to be flown over the Himalayas, known as “The Hump.” Flying over the Himalayas was very dangerous, but the airlift continued until August 1945.

United States

Pre-war trade and neutrality

The United States mostly stayed neutral between Japan and China until 1940, giving little help to China. Some U.S. policies even hurt China’s economy and helped Japan’s war effort.

From December 1937, events like Japan’s attack on a U.S. ship and the Nanjing Massacre turned Western public opinion sharply against Japan. This led the United States, the United Kingdom, and France to give loan assistance for war supplies to China. Australia also stopped Japan from taking an iron mine and banned iron ore exports in 1938.

Indochina and the oil embargo

Japan invaded parts of French Indochina in 1940 to stop China from getting supplies. In July 1941, Japan moved into southern French Indochina, which threatened British and Dutch colonies. In response, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands put an oil embargo on Japan on July 26, 1941. Losing oil imports made it hard for Japan to keep fighting in China, leading to Japan’s attacks on the Allies, including Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.

Military volunteers and aid

Further information: American Volunteer Group, Flying Tigers, and China Air Task Force

In mid-1941, the United States created the American Volunteer Groups (AVG), including the “Flying Tigers,” to help China. They began fighting after the U.S. declared war on Japan. The Flying Tigers were successful in their early battles, shooting down many Japanese planes with their heavily armed Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighters.

There were disagreements between the United States and China, and within the U.S. military, about how to give aid.

Intelligence and covert operations

The Sino-American Cooperative Organization (SACO) was created in 1942 by a treaty between China and the United States. It gathered intelligence against Japan together with the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), America’s first intelligence agency. SACO worked closely with Chinese forces, training them and helping with weather forecasting, scouting landing areas, rescuing downed American pilots, and intercepting Japanese radio messages.

One of SACO’s goals was to prepare China’s coast for possible Allied attacks on Japan. American and Canadian-born Chinese were recruited to work secretly in Japanese-occupied China, using their appearance to blend in and sabotage Japanese supply lines.

Casualties

The Second Sino-Japanese War lasted from July 1937 to September 1945, making it a very long and difficult conflict. Many people lost their lives during this war. In China, estimates of deaths range from about 10 million to 20 million, including both soldiers and civilians. Some studies suggest around 15 million to 16 million Chinese people died.

Japan also suffered significant losses. Japanese military casualties during the war were between 1.1 million and 1.9 million. Many Japanese soldiers were wounded, and some died from illnesses.

In addition to soldiers, many civilians in China suffered and died from hunger, disease, and the direct effects of the war. The war also caused millions of people to become refugees, forcing them to leave their homes. The conflict had a deep and lasting impact on both countries.

Aftermath

Resumption of the Chinese Civil War

Main article: Chinese Civil War

In 1945, China finished the war victorious but was very weak. The long and expensive war, along with inner fighting, had hurt the country's money and economy. Many farms were destroyed, leading to hunger and lack of food. Cities were damaged, and many people had no homes.

The Nationalist government was seen as not doing well, especially during a big Japanese attack. The leader, Chiang, blamed others for the problems. After the war, the Soviet Union took much of the machinery from areas they controlled, making it harder for China to rebuild.

During this time, the Communist group grew stronger and more popular. They lived among the people, sharing their food and thoughts. They helped poor farmers and gave them land. By the end of 1945, the Communists had many soldiers and supporters. They moved quickly to take control of areas, using weapons left by the Japanese. Soon after, fighting began again between the Nationalists and the Communists. This led to the Communists taking control of most of China in 1949, while the Nationalists moved to Taiwan.

Stranded populations

Many Japanese women who had been sent to live in China were left behind after the war. Most of these women were young and had to decide whether to stay or return to Japan. Some chose to stay because they had married Chinese men and started families. Others faced difficulties returning due to laws and discrimination.

Some women from Korea who had been brought to China by the Japanese during the war also stayed behind. They had faced very hard times and were treated badly. Many married Chinese men and began new lives, while others returned to Korea but faced shame and difficulty because of what they had experienced.

Legacy

Commemorations

Main article: Victory over Japan Day

Further information: Victory over Japan Day (China) and Victory Day (United States)

Different countries remember the end of World War II on different days. China celebrates on September 3, the day Japan officially surrendered. Japan marks August 15, the day its emperor announced the surrender.

China holds yearly events on September 3 to honor the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II. These events help people remember the war and bring the nation together.

Controversy over historical revisionism

Further information: Controversies surrounding Yasukuni Shrine

Japan has a national memorial on August 15. Many Japanese visit the Yasukuni Shrine, which causes tension with China and South Korea. Some in Japan deny parts of their history, which creates problems between countries.

The war still affects relations between Japan and China. While many Japanese acknowledge their country's past mistakes, some still deny them. This has led to disagreements, especially about school textbooks that sometimes leave out important events.

Political status of Taiwan

Main article: Political status of Taiwan

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan was a Japanese colony and used as a base for attacks. After the war, Taiwan came under the control of the Republic of China government. However, there is still debate about who truly owns Taiwan, and this continues today.

Traditionally, the Republic of China government celebrated events related to the war. But after a change in leadership, these celebrations stopped for a while. When the original party returned to power, the celebrations started again.