Third Battle of Panipat

The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 14 January 1761 between the Maratha Empire and the invading army of the Durrani Empire. The fighting happened near the city of Panipat, about 97 kilometres north of Delhi. The Afghans had support from several groups in India, including leaders like Najib-ud-Daula, some parts of the old Mughal Empire, and the Oudh State under Shuja-ud-Daula. The Maratha forces were led by Sadashivrao Bhau, a high-ranking leader in the Maratha Confederacy.

The battle was a big and important fight in the 18th century, with both sides using different kinds of weapons like artillery, muskets, and cavalry. The Afghan army, led by Ahmad Shah Durrani and Najib ud-Daula, won after tough fighting that lasted several days. Many soldiers from both sides were hurt or lost their lives, and the exact numbers are still debated by historians. This battle had a big effect on the history of India and changed the power balance in the area for many years.

Background

In 1757, Ahmad Shah Durrani, the ruler of Afghanistan, made his son Timur Shah the leader of Punjab. Because Timur Shah was very young, the general Jahan Khan took control. His harsh rule caused problems, leading to battles with local leaders. Eventually, the Marathas, a powerful group from central India, helped some of these leaders drive the Afghans out of Lahore.

The Marathas had grown very powerful and controlled much of India. They even reached Delhi and Lahore. This made some Muslim leaders, including Shah Waliullah, worry, and they asked Ahmad Shah Durrani for help. Durrani gathered an army and formed alliances with several groups in India, including the Rohillas and Shuja-ud-Daula, to fight against the Marathas.

The Marathas, led by Sadashivrao Bhau, decided to march north to face this threat. They had a large army and many followers traveling with them. Both sides tried to convince Shuja-ud-Daula, the leader of Awadh, to join them, and he eventually chose to support Durrani's alliance.

Rise of the Marathas

The Marathas had become very strong and controlled large parts of India between 1712 and 1757. At one point, they had control of Delhi and Lahore, and their leader, the Peshwa, wanted to place his son Vishwasrao on the Mughal throne. However, Delhi was still under the control of the Mughals.

Prelude

Ahmad Shah Durrani was upset by news from his son and allies. He did not want the Marathas to keep growing stronger. By late 1759, Ahmad Shah and his forces had reached Lahore and Delhi, defeating smaller enemy groups. He was joined by many people from northern India, the Rohillas, and Shuja-ud-Daula. Ahmad Shah convinced Shuja-ud-Daula to join him against the Marathas.

The Marathas, led by Sadashivrao Bhau, gathered their army and moved north. They were joined by forces from several leaders, including Holkar, Scindia, Gaikwad, and Govind Pant Bundele. Suraj Mal, a leader of the Jat people from Bharatpur, also joined at first. The Marathas captured Delhi from Afghan forces in December 1759. However, the Jats later left the Marathas, which would affect the battle’s outcome.

Before the battle, Suraj Mal gave advice to the Maratha leader Sadashivrao Bhau. He suggested keeping families safe, not carrying heavy items, having escape plans, keeping supply routes open, attacking enemy supplies, and using quick, mobile tactics instead of direct fighting. But Sadashivrao Bhau thought this was not honorable for a king.

Skirmishes before the battle

Afghan defeat at Kunjpura

Main article: Battle of Kunjpura

Before the big battle, the two armies fought smaller fights near Karnal and Kunjpura. A leader named Abdus Samad Khan brought supplies to the Afghan army at Kunjpura. The Marathas attacked Kunjpura and won easily, helped by their musketeers. Some important Afghan leaders were killed in this fight. This victory made the Afghan leader very angry.

Afghans cross Yamuna and the Battles of Samalkha and Meerut

Main articles: Battle of Samalkha (1760) and Battle of Meerut (1760)

The Afghan leader, Ahmad Shah, moved his army south and crossed the Yamuna River. After crossing, his forces met the Marathas near Samalkha. In a fight, the Afghans lost many men but pushed the Marathas back. Later, another fight happened near Meerut, where a Maratha leader was killed. These fights made it hard for the Marathas to get supplies.

Preliminary moves

During the next two months, the two armies kept fighting small battles. One Maratha leader almost made a peace deal, but it fell through. The Marathas were surrounded and running out of supplies. They decided to try and break out of the siege by using their cannons to attack the Afghans first.

Formations

The Marathas left their camp early one morning to face the Afghan army. They set up their lines with artillery in front, protected by soldiers. Behind them were more soldiers and even some civilians. The Afghans set up their lines too, with leaders and soldiers in different positions. The two armies were ready to fight.

Battle

Early phases

On January 14, 1761, the Maratha troops prepared for battle early in the morning. They moved their artillery into place, about 2 kilometers away from the Afghan forces. Ahmad Shah then positioned his 60 cannons and began firing.

The Maratha left flank, led by Ibrahim Khan, attacked the Rohillas and Shah Pasand Khan. The first cannon shots from the Marathas did not cause much damage. However, the Maratha bowmen and pikemen, along with Gardi musketeers, stopped the first Afghan attack. Later cannon shots were fired very close to the Afghan soldiers, causing heavy losses. This allowed Ibrahim Khan to control the battlefield for about three hours, during which the Gardi musketeers killed many Rohilla soldiers.

Final phase

Later, the Marathas under Scindia attacked Najib, who defended well. By noon, it seemed Bhau might win again. The Afghan left flank held strong, but their center was split, and the right was nearly destroyed. Ahmad Shah sent his reserve troops and arranged them with cavalry and special cannons on camels.

These camel-mounted cannons could fire over their own soldiers and hit the Maratha cavalry effectively. The Maratha cavalry could not withstand these attacks. Ahmad Shah also sent more troops to support his struggling soldiers. By around 2:00 PM, many Maratha soldiers were killed before close fighting began. By 4:00 PM, the tired Maratha infantry started to fall under the attacks of fresh Afghan reserves.

Outflanked

Sadashiv Rao Bhau, seeing his lines weakening and his son Vishwasrao missing in the chaos, decided to lead the battle himself. Some soldiers who had been captured earlier by the Marathas pretended to be Durrani troops and attacked from behind, causing confusion. Some Maratha troops panicked and ran back.

A part of the Afghan army was tasked with attacking the Gardis, who were on the far left of the Maratha army. The Maratha cavalry tried to protect them but lost patience and attacked the Rohillas directly. The Rohilla riflemen then targeted the Maratha cavalry, which only had swords. This allowed the Rohillas to surround the Gardis. Vishwasrao had already been killed. Bhau and his forces fought until the end, but many Maratha troops escaped that night. About 15,000 soldiers reached Gwalior.

Reasons for the outcome

The Afghan army led by Durrani had more soldiers and better weapons than the Maratha army. The Afghans used heavy mounted artillery, which moved quickly and was very effective in battle. The Marathas had good guns, but their artillery could not move as fast as the Afghan forces.

The Maratha leaders also had problems working together. Some wanted to fight using hidden tactics instead of direct battles, and others were more interested in their own goals than helping each other. One important Maratha leader, Raghunathrao, refused to join the battle because he was not given enough support. Because of these issues, the Marathas were not as strong as they could have been.

Massacres after the battle

After the battle, many soldiers and people tried to escape, but they were caught and hurt by the opposing forces. Many were taken captive and faced very hard times. Some kind people, including a group led by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, helped save about 2000 of these captives.

Unfortunately, many others were not as lucky and suffered greatly during this difficult time.

Aftermath

Main article: Capture of Delhi (1771)

After the battle, the leaders of the Maratha army were honored by their customs. One leader's wife was safely taken care of and returned home.

A key leader of the Maratha army was shocked by the loss and never fully recovered. Another leader was captured and faced serious trouble. The Maratha Empire never fully bounced back from this loss, though they stayed a large power in India and took back Delhi ten years later. However, their control over all of India ended later on.

The Afghan leader left India soon after and appointed a new ruler for the area. As he traveled back, his soldiers faced some attacks but made it safely. The battle stopped the Maratha plans to control a nearby region, leaving two groups to fight over it. One group that did not join the battle helped many Maratha people who escaped.

The battle slowed down the Maratha advances for a time, but later a new leader helped them regain their strength. However, after this leader passed away, disagreements among the Maratha leaders led to their eventual defeat by another power.

Legacy

Further information: First Anglo-Maratha War, Second Anglo-Maratha War, and Third Anglo-Maratha War

The bravery of the Maratha soldiers was praised even by their enemy, Ahmad Shah Abdali, who wrote to his friend, the king of Jaipur. He said the Marathas fought with great courage.

The battle was later mentioned in a poem by Rudyard Kipling. Both sides showed great bravery during the fighting.

In popular culture

Some writers and filmmakers have created stories about the Third Battle of Panipat. Bengali poet Kaykobad wrote a long poem called Mahashmashan about this battle. Another Bengali writer, Munier Choudhury, wrote a play named Roktakto Prantor in 1959 that is also based on this battle.

A popular book named Panipat was written in 2005 by the Marathi author Vishwas Patil. In 2019, a film also named Panipat was made. It was directed by Ashutosh Gowariker and starred Arjun Kapoor, Sanjay Dutt, and Kriti Sanon. The movie tells the story of the battle, though it includes some changes from what really happened.