Vietnam War

The Vietnam War (1 November 1955 – 30 April 1975) was an armed conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia fought between North Vietnam (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and South Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam) and their allies. North Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union and China, while South Vietnam was supported by the United States and other anti-communist nations. The conflict was part of the larger Cold War between the Soviet Union and the US, and it also involved civil wars in Laos and Cambodia.

After the French Union left Vietnam in 1954, the country was divided into two parts. The north, led by Ho Chi Minh, and the south, led by Ngo Dinh Diem, who received support from the United States. Tensions grew, and fighting began between the communist forces in the north and south and the government of South Vietnam.

The United States became more involved beginning in the early 1960s, sending military advisors and later combat troops. The war saw many important events, including the Tet Offensive in 1968, which changed public opinion in the United States. Over time, the US reduced its forces, and the war continued until Saigon fell in 1975, ending the conflict.

The Vietnam War had profound effects on all the countries involved. It caused many deaths and created lasting changes in the region and in the United States. The war also led to refugee crises and long-term health problems for many people because of weapons and chemicals used during the fighting.

Names

The Vietnam War is the most common name used in English for this conflict. It has also been called the Second Indochina War because it spread to Laos and Cambodia. Other names include the Vietnam Conflict and the colloquial term 'Nam.

In South Vietnam, it was known as Kháng chiến chống Cộng sản, meaning 'Resistance War against Communists,' and Cuộc chiến bảo vệ tự do, meaning 'Fight to Protect Freedom.' North Vietnam and official Vietnamese histories today call it Kháng chiến chống Mỹ, cứu nước, meaning 'Resistance War against America to save the nation,' or simply the Resistance War against America. Many Vietnamese people refer to it as Chiến tranh Việt Nam, the Vietnam War.

Background

Main articles: French Indochina, Vietnamese nationalism, and Communism in Vietnam

Vietnam had been under French control since the 1880s. Vietnamese people wanted independence, leading to many groups working toward this goal. One important group was led by Ho Chi Minh, who formed the Indochinese Communist Party in 1930. This group aimed to end French rule and create a communist Vietnam.

During World War II, Japan invaded French Indochina. Ho Chi Minh formed the Viet Minh to fight against the Japanese. After Japan surrendered, Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam's independence in 1945. However, French forces returned to try to regain control. This led to a war between the French and the Viet Minh, which became part of the larger Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States. The conflict ended in 1954 when Vietnamese forces defeated the French at Dien Bien Phu, leading to Vietnam being temporarily split into North and South.

Transition period

Main articles: 1954 Geneva Conference, 1954 in Vietnam, Operation Passage to Freedom, and Land reform in North Vietnam

The 1954 Geneva Accords ended the fighting between French forces and communist fighters, but Vietnam was divided at the 17th parallel. People were allowed to move between the two parts for a period, and elections were planned for 1956 to choose a unified government. However, the United States did not support these elections.

During this time, many people moved from the north to the south, fearing persecution. The south became the State of Vietnam, led by Ngô Đình Diệm, while the north was led by Ho Chi Minh. Diệm faced opposition from various groups and held a vote to make himself president, which many believe was unfair. The situation set the stage for further conflict as the country remained divided.

Diệm era, 1954–63

Main articles: Ngo Dinh Diem and War in Vietnam (1954–1959)

Ngô Đình Diệm, a strong leader who opposed communism and wanted independence from foreign control, became the leader of South Vietnam. He worked to build a strong government but faced many challenges. His strict rules and actions against people who disagreed with him caused anger and led to more conflict.

During this time, communist fighters, known as the Viet Cong, began to grow in number and strength. They wanted to remove American influence and change the government. Fighting between these groups and Diệm’s forces increased, especially in the countryside. The North Vietnamese government also supported the communist efforts in the South, sending supplies and soldiers through a secret trail in nearby Laos.

Kennedy's escalation, 1961–63

Main articles: War in Vietnam (1959–1963) and Strategic Hamlet Program

In the 1960 U.S. presidential election, John F. Kennedy became president. He wanted to support South Vietnam against communist forces. Kennedy increased U.S. military aid and sent more advisors, but he did not send large combat troops. He believed that South Vietnamese forces should fight the guerrillas themselves.

The Strategic Hamlet Program began in 1961 to move rural people into protected villages. This aimed to keep them safe from guerrilla attacks and strengthen ties with the government. However, the program did not work well and ended in 1964. During this time, political problems grew in South Vietnam, leading to instability and conflict.

Gulf of Tonkin and Johnson's escalation, 1963–69

Main article: Joint warfare in South Vietnam, 1963–1969

Further information: United States in the Vietnam War § Americanization, January 1964 South Vietnamese coup, September 1964 South Vietnamese coup attempt, December 1964 South Vietnamese coup, and 1965 South Vietnamese coup

After President Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson became president. He focused quickly on the situation in Vietnam, determined to support South Vietnam against communism. Johnson believed that if South Vietnam fell, other nearby countries might follow, a theory known as the "domino theory."

In August 1964, there was an incident in the Gulf of Tonkin where American ships reported attacks by North Vietnamese forces. This led to Congress giving President Johnson more power to fight in Vietnam through the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Johnson used this to increase American military involvement.

Gulf of Tonkin incident

Main article: Gulf of Tonkin incident

Further information: Credibility gap

On August 2, 1964, the American ship USS Maddox reported being attacked by North Vietnamese boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. Another attack was reported two days later on USS Turner Joy and Maddox. These events led to Congress approving the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on August 7, giving President Johnson the authority to take stronger actions in Vietnam without further approval.

Following this, the United States began bombing North Vietnam. This campaign, known as Operation Rolling Thunder, lasted for three years and involved dropping a huge amount of bombs to try to stop North Vietnam from supporting the forces fighting in the south.

Bombing of Laos

Main article: Laotian Civil War

The United States also bombed parts of Laos, a neighboring country, to stop supplies and troops from moving to South Vietnam. Even though Laos claimed to be neutral, the United States felt it needed to act to protect South Vietnam. Between 1964 and 1973, the United States dropped a massive amount of bombs on Laos.

The 1964 offensive

After the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, North Vietnam prepared for more fighting. They increased the number of their soldiers and improved their equipment. In battles like Bình Giã and Đồng Xoài, North Vietnamese forces showed they could fight in more traditional, direct battles rather than just quick attacks.

American ground war

See also: Buddhist Uprising

In March 1965, the United States sent its first ground troops to South Vietnam, marking the start of full American involvement in the fighting. General William Westmoreland created a plan with three phases to win the war, focusing on aggressive attacks against North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces. Despite large operations, the enemy often moved away and returned later, keeping the initiative in the war.

Tet Offensive and its aftermath

Main articles: Tet Offensive and United States news media and the Vietnam War

In late 1967, North Vietnamese forces planned a big attack called the Tet Offensive for early 1968. They attacked many cities and bases in South Vietnam, surprising American and South Vietnamese troops. The fighting was fierce, especially in the city of Huế, which took a long time to recapture.

The Tet Offensive shocked many people because it showed the war was not going as well as some leaders had said. After the attack, peace talks began between the United States and North Vietnam. The war continued for several more years, and it became a big issue in the 1968 U.S. presidential election.

Vietnamization, 1969–72

Nixon began pulling troops out in 1969. His plan, called "Vietnamization," aimed to build up South Vietnam's forces so they could defend themselves. During this time, the United States tried to improve relations with the Soviet Union and China, which reduced some tensions.

As the war continued, there were big changes in how North Vietnam fought. After the death of Ho Chi Minh in 1969, North Vietnam shifted its strategy. The United States faced growing opposition at home, with many people protesting the war. Important documents called the Pentagon Papers were made public, showing that the government had not been completely honest about the war.

U.S. exit and final campaigns, 1973–75

In early 1973, both sides in the Vietnam War tried to gain more land and people before a ceasefire took place on January 28. Fighting continued even after the ceasefire, but the United States did not take part. North Vietnam was allowed to send supplies to its troops in the South, but only to replace what they had used up. The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Kissinger and Thọ, though Thọ declined it because he felt peace had not truly arrived.

As the United States left Vietnam, the South Vietnamese economy suffered because it relied heavily on American support. After some fights in which many South Vietnamese soldiers were hurt, the leader of South Vietnam announced that the war had started again. The United States’ new president, Gerald Ford, asked Congress for money to help South Vietnam, but Congress refused and cut down the aid they were sending.

In December 1974, North Vietnamese forces attacked a province in South Vietnam. Their success surprised everyone and gave them confidence. In March 1975, they launched a big attack in the Central Highlands. South Vietnamese forces were not ready and fell back quickly. The leader of South Vietnam changed his plans many times, causing confusion and panic.

With most of the northern part of the country now under their control, the North Vietnamese decided to launch their final attack to capture Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, before May 1. Their forces moved quickly, taking many cities. By late April, they had Saigon surrounded. On April 30, North Vietnamese troops entered Saigon. The fighting stopped, and Saigon fell. This marked the end of the Vietnam War.

Opposition to US involvement

Main articles: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War and Protests of 1968

See also: Russell Tribunal, Fulbright hearings, and Chicago Seven

As the Vietnam War continued, many Americans grew unhappy with their country's involvement. By 1970, most people felt it was a mistake to send troops to Vietnam. Young people often protested because they didn’t want to be forced to fight, and many believed the war went against America’s values. Protests grew larger over time, with big events like the Vietnam Moratorium drawing millions of people. After the Paris Peace Accords and the end of the draft in 1973, opposition to the war lessened.

Involvement of other countries

Main article: International participation in the Vietnam War

The Vietnam War involved many countries supporting either North or South Vietnam. China helped North Vietnam with money, food, and military supplies. They sent many troops and equipment to support North Vietnam's efforts.

The Soviet Union also supported North Vietnam, giving them tanks, planes, missiles, and other weapons. Soviet crews even helped operate some of the missiles against American aircraft. Several Soviet soldiers served in Vietnam and were lost during the conflict.

On the side of South Vietnam were countries like Australia, New Zealand, and South Korea, along with the United States. These nations sent troops and supplies to help South Vietnam defend against the communist North. Other nations such as the United Kingdom, France, and Pakistan were formally allied with South Vietnam through treaties but chose not to become directly involved in the fighting.

United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races

Main articles: United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races and FULRO insurgency

During the Vietnam War, many ethnic groups in South Vietnam, such as the Montagnards, Cham, and Khmer Krom, were involved in the conflict. Some of these groups formed an organization called the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (FULRO), which sought autonomy or independence. FULRO fought against both South Vietnamese forces and later against the unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam after the war ended.

War crimes

Main articles: List of war crimes § 1955–1975: Vietnam War, and List of massacres in Vietnam

Both sides in the Vietnam War committed serious wrongdoings. These included harming civilians, attacking places where people lived, and mistreating prisoners. Such actions went against the rules meant to protect people during wars.

The United States and its allies were found to have broken these rules in several cases. Reports showed many incidents where civilians were harmed or mistreated. For example, some soldiers attacked villages where they thought enemies might hide, leading to many civilian deaths. There were also reports of prisoners being treated very badly.

The other side, North Vietnam and the Viet Cong, also did harmful things. They used fear to control people in some areas and attacked civilians in various ways. Both sides in the war had moments where they did things that were wrong and hurt innocent people.

Women

Main article: Women in the Vietnam War

Women played important roles during the Vietnam War, contributing in many ways. Many Vietnamese women served in the military and helped with tasks like caring for the sick, moving supplies, and supporting soldiers. They also took on more responsibilities at home and in jobs usually done by men.

Even though women helped a lot, they sometimes faced unfair treatment. After the war, many women who had served found it hard to be accepted back into their communities. Today, women continue to work on solving problems left from the war, like the effects of chemicals used during the fighting.

Black servicemen

Main article: Military history of African Americans in the Vietnam War

African-American soldiers played an important role in the Vietnam War. They often faced unfair treatment and higher risks in battle compared to their white counterparts. Civil rights leaders spoke out about these issues, leading to changes that helped reduce the imbalance by the end of the war. By the war's end, the percentage of African-American combat deaths had improved, though challenges remained.

Weapons

Main article: List of weapons of the Vietnam War

During the Vietnam War, both sides used many different types of weapons. The United States and its allies mainly used rifles like the M1 Garand, M1 carbine, M14 rifle, and M16 rifle. Soldiers from Australia and New Zealand often used the 7.62 mm L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle, sometimes also using the M16 rifle.

North Vietnam and the Viet Cong used weapons supplied mostly by China and the Soviet Union, along with some older weapons from past conflicts. They also made some of their own weapons, including certain explosives and rocket launchers. By the late 1960s, the U.S. Army had identified dozens of different rifle, machine gun, mortar, and rocket launcher types used by all sides in the war.

Casualties

See also: Vietnam War body count controversy

The Vietnam War caused many deaths on all sides. Estimates suggest that up to 3.8 million people died in Vietnam from 1955 to 2002 due to the war. This includes both soldiers and civilians from North and South Vietnam. In South Vietnam, around 195,000 to 430,000 civilians are thought to have died.

Many soldiers also lost their lives. South Vietnam’s military suffered about 254,000 deaths between 1960 and 1974. The United States lost about 58,281 military personnel. In nearby countries, between 275,000 and 310,000 people in Cambodia and 20,000 to 62,000 in Laos also died as a result of the war and bombings. Exact numbers are hard to determine because of the challenges in distinguishing soldiers from civilians during the conflict.

Aftermath

In July 1976, North and South Vietnam joined to become the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Many South Vietnamese were sent to re-education camps, where they faced hard labor and difficult conditions. Estimates of the number of people sent to these camps vary widely.

The Vietnam War had lasting effects beyond Vietnam. In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge took control and caused great suffering. In Laos, the country was heavily bombed, leaving many unexploded bombs that still cause problems today. Many people from Southeast Asia became refugees, with large numbers resettling in the United States and other countries.

In the United States, the war led to deep divisions and lasting changes in how the country views military conflicts. The high cost of the war and its uncertain outcomes raised many questions about military strategy and decision-making. The experiences of American soldiers also had a significant impact, with many facing health issues and challenges after the war.