United States in the Vietnam War

The involvement of the United States in the Vietnam War began in the 1950s and grew much bigger in 1965, ending with withdrawal in 1973. At its highest point in April 1969, over 543,000 American soldiers were in Vietnam. By the time the United States left, more than 3.1 million Americans had served there, and 58,279 had been killed.

After World War II ended in 1945, U.S. leaders worried about the spread of communism. This concern, called the "containment" policy, led the United States to send help to countries resisting communist influence. In Vietnam, this meant supporting the government of South Vietnam against forces from North Vietnam and local rebels known as the Viet Cong.

When events known as the Gulf of Tonkin incident happened in 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson began air attacks on North Vietnam. Soon after, American soldiers were sent to fight on the ground. As the war continued, many people in the United States spoke out against it. After many years and great loss, a peace agreement was signed in 1973, and the last U.S. troops left Vietnam. In 1975, North Vietnam captured the capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, and the country became one again in 1976.

The war had big effects on the United States. It cost a lot of money, changed plans for improving life for Americans, and caused deep division in the country about whether the war was right or wrong. Even today, the story of the Vietnam War is remembered through many movies, books, and games.

Timeline

Early 20th century (1913–1949)

• 1919 — The Council of Four ignores a petition written by Ho Chi Minh seeking Vietnamese independence from French rule.
• 1941 — Franklin D. Roosevelt declines repeated requests from the French to assist France's attempts to recolonize Vietnam.
• July 1945 — Members of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), commanded by Major Allison Thomas, parachute into Vietnam to help train Viet Minh forces for operations against occupying Japanese forces.
• August 15, 1945 — Japan surrenders to the Allies of World War II. In Indochina, the Japanese administration allows Hồ Chí Minh to take control over the country, in the August Revolution. Hồ Chí Minh fights with a variety of other political factions for control of the major cities.
• August 1945 — A few days after the August Revolution, Nationalist Chinese forces enter from the north and, as previously planned by the Allies, establish an administration in the country as far south as the 16th parallel north.
• September 26, 1945 — OSS officer Lieutenant Colonel A. Peter Dewey, who was working with the Viet Minh to repatriate Americans captured by the Japanese, was killed by a member of the Viet Minh who mistakenly believed him to be French.
• October 1945 — British troops land in southern Vietnam and establish a provisional administration. The British free French soldiers and officials imprisoned by the Japanese. The French begin taking control of cities within the British zone of occupation.
• February 1946 — The French sign an agreement with China. France gives up its concessions in Shanghai and other Chinese ports. In exchange, China agrees to assist the French in returning to Vietnam north of the 17th parallel.
• March 6, 1946 — After negotiations with the Chinese and the Viet Minh, the French sign an agreement recognizing Vietnam within the French Union. Shortly after, the French land at Haiphong and occupy the rest of northern Vietnam. The Viet Minh use the negotiating process with France and China to buy time to use their armed forces to destroy all competing nationalist groups in the north.
• December 1946 — Negotiations between the Viet Minh and the French break down. The Viet Minh are driven out of Hanoi into the countryside.
• 1947–1949 — The Viet Minh fight a limited insurgency in remote rural areas of northern Vietnam.
• 1949 — Chinese communists reach the northern border of Indochina. The Viet Minh drive the French from the border region and begin to receive large amounts of weapons from the Soviet Union and China. The weapons transform the Viet Minh from an irregular large-scale insurgent movement into a conventional army.

1950s

• May 1, 1950 — After the capture of Hainan Island from Chinese Nationalist forces by the Chinese People's Liberation Army, President Truman approves $10 million in military assistance for anti-communist efforts in Indochina. The Defense Attaché Office was established in Saigon in May 1950, a formal recognition of Vietnam (vice French Indochina). This was the beginning of formal U.S. military personnel assignments in Vietnam. U.S. Naval, Army, and Air Force personnel established their respective attachés at this time.
• September 1950 — Truman sends the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) Indochina to Vietnam to assist the French. Truman claimed they were not sent as combat troops, but to supervise the use of $10 million worth of U.S. military equipment to support the French in their effort to fight the Viet Minh forces.
• Following the outbreak of the Korean War, Truman announces "acceleration in the furnishing of military assistance to the forces of France and the Associated States in Indochina...", and sends 123 non-combat troops to help with supplies to fight against the communist Viet Minh.
• 1951 — Truman authorizes $150 million in French support.
• 1953 — By November, French commander in Indochina, General Navarre, asked U.S. General MacArthur to loan 12 Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar aircraft, to be flown by French crews, to facilitate Operation Castor at Dien Bien Phu.
• 1954 — In January, Navarre's deputy asked for additional transport aircraft. Negotiations ended on March 3, with 24 CIA pilots (CAT) to operate 12 U.S. Air Force C-119s, flying undercover using French insignia, but maintained by the USAF.
• 1954 — General Paul Ely, the French Chief of Staff, proposed an American operation to rescue French forces at Dien Bien Phu. Operation Vulture was hastily planned but not approved due to lack of consensus.
• May 6, 1954 — James B. McGovern Jr. and Wallace Buford, U.S. civilian contract pilots employed by Civil Air Transport and flying a C-119 inscribed with French Air Force insignia, were killed when their aircraft was hit by ground fire and crashed after making a parachute drop to resupply French troops at Dien Bien Phu.
• 1954 — The Viet Minh defeat the French at Dien Bien Phu. The defeat, along with the end of the Korean War the previous year, causes the French to seek a negotiated settlement to the war.
• 1954 — The Geneva Conference, called to determine the post-French future of Indochina, proposes a temporary division of Vietnam, to be followed by nationwide elections to unify the country in 1956. However the final declaration was left unsigned by all delegates after the United States and the State of Vietnam stated they wouldn't accept the proposal.
• 1954 — Two months after the Geneva conference, North Vietnam forms Group 100 with headquarters at Ban Namèo. Its purpose is to direct, organize, train, and supply the Pathet Lao to gain control of Laos, which along with Cambodia and Vietnam formed French Indochina.
• 1955 — North Vietnam launches an "anti-landlord" campaign, during which counter-revolutionaries are imprisoned or killed. The numbers killed or imprisoned are disputed, with historian Stanley Karnow estimating about 6,000 while others (see the book Fire in the Lake) estimate only 800. Rudolph Rummel puts the figure as high as 200,000.
• November 1, 1955 — President Eisenhower deploys MAAG to train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. This marks the official beginning of American involvement in the war as recognized by the Vietnam Veterans Memorial.
• April 1956 — The last French troops finally withdraw from Vietnam.
• 1954–1956 — 450,000 Vietnamese civilians flee the Viet Minh administration in North Vietnam and relocate in South Vietnam as part of the US government's Operation Passage to Freedom. Approximately 52,000 move in the opposite direction. Dr. Thomas Dooley writes his memoir about the refugees Deliver Us from Evil.
• 1956 — National unification elections do not occur.
• December 1958 — North Vietnam invades Laos and occupies parts of the country.
• July 8, 1959 — Chester M. Ovnand and Dale R. Buis become the first two American advisers to die in Vietnam.
• September 1959 — North Vietnam forms Group 959, which assumes command of the Pathet Lao forces in Laos.

1960s

• November 1960 — Coup attempt by paratroopers is foiled after Diệm falsely promises reform, allowing loyalists to crush the rebels.
• December 20, 1960 — The National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, better known as the Viet Cong (VC), is founded.
• January 1961 — Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev pledges support for "wars of national liberation" throughout the world. The idea of creating a neutral Laos is suggested to Kennedy.
• May 1961 — Kennedy sends 400 United States Army Special Forces personnel to South Vietnam to train South Vietnamese soldiers following a visit to the country by Vice President Johnson.
• June 1961 — Kennedy meets with Khrushchev in Vienna. He protests North Vietnam's attacks on Laos and points out that the U.S. was supporting the neutrality of Laos. The two leaders agree to pursue a policy of creating a neutral Laos.
• June 1961 — Kennedy said, "Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place" to James Reston of The New York Times (immediately after meeting Khrushchev in Vienna).
• August 10, 1961 — Test run of U.S. herbicidal warfare program in South Vietnam, Operation Trail Dust.
• October 1961 — Following successful VC attacks, Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara recommends sending six divisions (200,000 men) to South Vietnam.
• February 8, 1962 — Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV) succeeds MAAG.
• February 1962 — Attempted assassination of Diệm by two dissident Republic of Vietnam Air Force pilots who bombed his palace, fails.
• July 23, 1962 — International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos is signed at Geneva, promising Laotian neutrality.
• August 1, 1962 — Kennedy signs the Foreign Assistance Act of 1962, which provides "... military assistance to countries which are on the rim of the Communist world and under direct attack."
• October 1962 — Operation Ranch Hand begins. U.S. planes spray herbicides and defoliants over South Vietnam until 1971.
• January 3, 1963 — VC victory in the Battle of Ap Bac.
• May 8, 1963 — Buddhists demonstrate in Huế, South Vietnam after the display of religious flags were prohibited, during the celebration of Vesak, Gautama Buddha's birthday; but, Catholic flags celebrating the consecration of Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục, brother of Diệm were not prohibited. The police of Ngô Đình Cẩn, Diệm's younger brother, open fire, killing nine.
• May 1963 — Republican Barry Goldwater declares that the U.S. should fight to win or withdraw from Vietnam. Later on, during his presidential campaign against Lyndon B. Johnson, his Democratic opponents accuse him of wanting to use nuclear weapons in the conflict.
• June 11, 1963 — Photographs of protesting Buddhist monk, Thích Quảng Đức, burning himself to death in protest in Saigon, appear in U.S. newspapers.
• Summer 1963 — Madame Nhu, de facto First Lady to the bachelor Diệm, makes a series of vitriolic attacks on Buddhists, calling the immolations "barbecues". Diệm ignores U.S. calls to silence her.
• August 21, 1963 — ARVN special forces loyal to Ngô Đình Nhu, younger brother of Diệm, stage raids across the country, attacking Buddhist temples and firing on monks. The cremated remains of Thích Quảng Đức are confiscated from Xá Lợi Pagoda in Saigon. New U.S. ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge rebukes Diệm by visiting Xá Lợi and giving refuge to Buddhist leader Thích Trí Quang. The U.S. calls for Nhu to be dropped by Diệm, and threatens to cut aid to Colonel Lê Quang Tung's Special Forces if they are not sent into battle, rather than used to repress dissidents.
• September 2, 1963 — Kennedy criticises the Diệm regime in an interview with Walter Cronkite, citing the Buddhist repression, and claiming that Diệm is out of touch.
• Late October 1963 — Nhu, unaware that Saigon region commander General Tôn Thất Đính is double-crossing him, draws up plans for a phony coup and counter-coup to reaffirm the Diệm regime. Đính sends Nhu's loyal special forces out of Saigon on the pretext of fighting communists and in readiness for the counter coup, and rings Saigon with rebel troops.
• November 1, 1963 — Military officers launch a coup d'état against Diệm, with the tacit approval of the Kennedy administration. Diệm and Nhu escape the presidential residence via a secret exit after loyalist forces were locked out of Saigon, unable to rescue them.
• November 2, 1963 — Diệm and Nhu are discovered in nearby Cholon. Although they had been promised exile by the junta, they are executed by Nguyễn Văn Nhung, bodyguard of General Dương Văn Minh. Minh leads the military junta.
• November 1963 — By this time, Kennedy has increased the number of military personnel from the 900 that were there when he became president to 16,000 just before his death.
• November 22, 1963 — Kennedy is assassinated, and Johnson is sworn in as president.
• August 1964 — Gulf of Tonkin incident: USS Maddox is allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese patrol torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin (the attack is later disputed), leading Johnson to call for air strikes on North Vietnamese patrol boat bases. Two U.S. aircraft are shot down and one U.S. pilot, Everett Alvarez, Jr., becomes the first U.S. airman to be taken prisoner by North Vietnam. Congress passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, authorizing U.S. military action to support any Southeast Asia Treaty Organization government against communist aggression.
• March 2, 1965 — Operation Rolling Thunder begins.
• March 8, 1965 — First U.S. ground troops arrive in Da Nang composed of 3,500 US Marines of the 3rd Marine Division on Okinawa.
• March 10, 1965 — Authored in secret with roots from at least 1964, "Plan of Action for South Vietnam" is a Top Secret rolling document and evolving plan that outlines a significant departure from the public narrative: eradicating communism in Indochina, to "avoiding a humiliating US defeat". The report is dated both 10 and 24 March 1965—months and ultimately years before the bulk of US ground troops are to be deployed.
• July 28, 1965 — In a nationally televised speech, Johnson announces his decision to send an additional 50,000 American troops to South Vietnam, increasing the number of personnel there by two-thirds and to bring the commitment to 125,000. Johnson also says that the monthly draft call would more than double, to more than 1,000 new young men per day (from 17,000 to 35,000) for enlistment and training in the U.S. Armed Forces.
• 1966 — Johnson expands the number of troops being sent into Vietnam to 385,000.
• October 1966 — McNamara initiates Project 100,000 significantly reducing recruitment standards for the U.S. military in the face of rising manpower needs.
• April 20, 1969 — Nixon orders the withdrawal of 150,000 U.S. troops from South Vietnam over the span of 12 months, citing Vietnamization; U.S. troop presence peaks at over 540,000.
• June 8, 1969 — Nixon announces that 25,000 U.S. troops would be withdrawn by the end of September. A month later, troops would begin departing South Vietnam.
• July 25, 1969 — The Nixon Doctrine is announced in an informal press conference.
• July 30, 1969 — Nixon visits South Vietnam for the first and only time as president.
• October 15, 1969 — Across the U.S., hundreds of thousands attend mass protests for withdrawal from the Vietnam War.
• November 15, 1969 — A second, larger protest takes place in Washington, D.C., with an estimated 500,000 people.
• December 1, 1969 — The first draft lottery since 1942 is held.

1970s

• April 20, 1970 — Nixon announces a second withdrawal of 150,000 U.S. troops from South Vietnam over the span of 12 months.
• April 30, 1970 — Nixon announces that U.S. troops were sent into Cambodia, reversing his April 20 decision to withdraw 150,000 troops.^{[better source needed]}
• June 3, 1970 — Nixon withdraws half of the 31,000 troops in Cambodia to fight in South Vietnam.
• January 6, 1971 — Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird says that the combat mission of U.S. troops were planned to end by summer.
• March 1, 1971 — At 1:32 a.m., a bomb planted by the Weather Underground explodes outside the U.S. Capitol in protest of the invasion of Laos.
• April 23, 1971 — A protest tantamount to the November 1969 protest takes place in Washington, D.C.
• June 13, 1971 — The Pentagon Papers begin to be published.
• July 26, 1971 — Kissinger announces plans for $7.5 billion in aid to be provided for Vietnam, and for the removal of all U.S. troops within nine months.
• January 13, 1972 — Nixon announces plans for 70,000 U.S. troops to be pulled out of Vietnam, half of the remaining forces.
• February 21, 1972 — Nixon meets Mao Zedong, becoming the first president to meet with a Chinese Communist leader face to face.
• April 20, 1972 — Nixon announces plans to reduce U.S. troops in South Vietnam to 49,000 by July 1, 1972.
• August 29, 1972 — Nixon announces the further withdrawal of U.S. troops in South Vietnam to only 27,000 by December 1, 1972.
• November 7, 1972 — Nixon wins re-election.
• January 22, 1973 — Johnson dies.
• January 27, 1973 — U.S. troops are planned to be withdrawn from South Vietnam in 60 days due to the signing of the Paris Peace Accords. North Vietnam and Nixon also agree to withdraw troops from Cambodia and Laos.
• March 29, 1973 — The last American combat troops are withdrawn from Vietnam.
• August 9, 1974 — Nixon resigns due to the Watergate scandal and is succeeded by Gerald Ford.

Under the Kennedy administration

In 1961, President John F. Kennedy began a new way of helping anti-communist forces in Vietnam. He worried about something called the "domino effect," where if one country fell to communism, others nearby might follow. Kennedy spent money to build up the army and safety forces in South Vietnam. He also sent special soldiers called Green Berets to help train local forces.

Kennedy faced many problems, like keeping peace between different groups in South Vietnam. Some leaders were not trusted, and there were big protests. Even though Kennedy wanted to help, he also hoped to reduce U.S. troops there over time.

Main articles: Buddhist crisis, Hue Vesak shootings, Xa Loi Pagoda raids, and 1963 South Vietnamese coup

Americanization

Gulf of Tonkin

Further informationon the decision to escalate the American involvement: Gulf of Tonkin incident

Further informationon U.S. covert activities in Southeast Asia: Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group

In 1964, more U.S. military advisers were sent to South Vietnam, increasing American troop levels to 21,000. Soon after, an incident occurred off the coast of North Vietnam that led to a major escalation of the conflict.

On August 2, 1964, the destroyer USS Maddox was attacked by North Vietnamese boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. Two nights later, another attack was reported. Using these incidents as a reason, President Johnson asked Congress for more power to use American military forces in South Vietnam. Congress approved the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, giving the President broad powers to conduct military operations without a formal declaration of war.

Operation Rolling Thunder, 1965–68

Main article: Operation Rolling Thunder

In early 1965, a U.S. air base in South Vietnam was attacked, prompting the start of Operation Rolling Thunder. This was a sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam by U.S. Air Force and Navy aircraft. The goal was to support South Vietnam and to discourage North Vietnam from continuing the war. The operation continued for three years, with over 300,000 sorties and nearly three-quarters of a million tons of bombs dropped.

Build-up

President Johnson appointed General William C. Westmoreland to lead American forces in South Vietnam. Under his command, the number of American troops increased from 16,000 in 1964 to over 553,000 by 1969. Allies like Australia, Republic of Korea, Thailand, and the Philippines also sent troops, supported by the United States.

On March 8, 1965, the first U.S. combat troops landed at Da Nang. This was followed by more units, including the U.S. 173rd Airborne Brigade. The first major U.S. ground operation, Operation Starlite, began in August 1965.

Search and destroy, the strategy of attrition

In late 1965, the Pentagon announced that U.S. troop levels would need to increase to conduct major operations against North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces. General Westmoreland believed that by conducting large offensive operations, he could weaken the enemy and eventually force them into negotiations.

American forces conducted many operations, marching through difficult terrain and facing harsh weather. The use of helicopters, known as "Air Mobile", was crucial, allowing troops to move quickly and be resupplied in remote areas. Helicopters also enabled medical evacuations, improving survival rates for wounded soldiers.

Border battles and the Tet Offensive

Main articles: Battle of Khe Sanh and Tet Offensive

In 1967, intense fighting occurred near the Laotian border, particularly around the Khe Sanh combat base. Despite reinforcements, the base faced heavy attacks. The U.S. used advanced technology, including a sensor-driven system called Operation Igloo White, to detect enemy movements.

In January 1968, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces launched a large offensive during the Tet holiday, attacking many cities and military bases in South Vietnam. The offensive was repulsed, but it shocked the American public and led to a loss of support for the war. President Johnson announced he would not seek re-election and began peace talks.

My Lai massacre

Main article: My Lai massacre

In March 1968, soldiers from the Americal Division participated in an operation near the village of My Lai. During this operation, hundreds of Vietnamese civilians were killed. The incident was later exposed by journalist Seymour Hersh, leading to investigations and convictions. This event, along with others, highlighted the serious issues and mistakes made during the war.

Vietnamization, 1969–73

Richard Nixon had promised during the 1968 presidential election to end the war in Vietnam and bring peace. However, the American involvement continued for several more years. The goal was to help the South Vietnamese forces become strong enough to defend themselves on their own. This plan was called Vietnamization.

As the U.S. began to pull out troops, the situation became difficult. Some American soldiers struggled with discipline and morale dropped. Nixon worked to improve relations with other countries, like People's Republic of China, to ease pressure at home over the war. However, support for North Vietnam from other nations grew, allowing them to launch major attacks against the South.

Views on the war

After the Vietnam War, many Americans had different feelings about it. Some felt it was a mistake, while others saw it as a noble cause. Leaders and the public discussed whether the war was handled well by leaders or the military.

Important figures like civil rights leaders also spoke out against the war. For example, Martin Luther King Jr. later in his career began to speak against the war, saying it was wrong and hurt many people. Malcolm X also spoke out, pointing out what he saw as unfair treatment of Black Americans while the country was involved in the war far away.

Financial cost

Between 1953 and 1975, the United States spent a lot of money on the Vietnam War—about $168 billion, which is like $1.74 trillion today. This spending caused a big problem with the government's budget. Some people think the money could have helped pay off all the home loans in the country at that time.

Many Americans served in the Vietnam War. At one point, more than half a million U.S. soldiers were in Vietnam. After the war, the government has been giving money each year to help veterans and their families.

Impact on the U.S. military

Further information: Vietnam War casualties

See also: Vietnam War resisters in Canada and Vietnam War resisters in Sweden

By the end of the Vietnam War, many American soldiers had been hurt or lost their lives. The war was very hard on the U.S. military, and many troops struggled with difficult feelings after their experiences. Some soldiers used drugs to cope with the stress and uncertainty of the war. As the war became less popular in the United States, problems like low spirits and disagreements grew among the troops. This led to changes in how the U.S. military was organized, including moving toward a volunteer army instead of requiring people to serve.