Xia dynasty

The Xia dynasty was the first dynasty in traditional Chinese historiography. It is often seen as a legendary time, but many Chinese archeologists believe it was a real part of history, linking it to the Erlitou culture that lived around 1900 to 1500 BC. According to stories passed down, the Xia dynasty began when Yu the Great took power after Shun, one of the Five Emperors, gave it to him.

Because there are no writings from the time of the Xia, we do not have direct proof that it existed. The oldest Chinese writings, called oracle bone inscriptions from the later Shang dynasty, do not mention the Xia. The first mentions of the Xia appear in old parts of the Book of Documents, written during the early Western Zhou period. These writings helped spread the idea that each dynasty ruled with a right called the Mandate of Heaven, which later became an important belief.

Different ways of counting the years show that the Xia dynasty may have ruled between 2205 and 1766 BC, or between 1989 and 1558 BC, or even from 2070 to 1600 BC. These dates come from old records and careful studies made by historians and scientists.

Traditional historiography

The Xia dynasty was talked about in old Chinese books like the Book of Documents, the Bamboo Annals, and Sima Qian's Shiji. These books show that people long ago thought the Xia dynasty was real. Stories tell us that Yu the Great, the first leader of the Xia, was linked to important figures like the Yellow Emperor.

Yu’s father, Gun, tried to stop big floods in the Yellow River but couldn’t succeed. Later, Yu took over and finally managed to control the floods by organizing many people to dig channels. This helped farming grow, and Yu became a leader. When the leader Shun stepped down, he chose Yu to be the new ruler, starting the Xia dynasty.

The Xia dynasty is known for beginning the idea of passing power within a family. After Yu, his son Qi took over. The dynasty had its ups and downs, including times when other leaders tried to take control, but it lasted until a king named Jie was overthrown. Then, a new leader named Tang started the Shang dynasty.

Traditional structure

According to old stories, Yu the Great divided his land into nine provinces. Each area had its own type of soil and what it could grow. These areas match places in China today like Hebei, Shanxi, and others.

The Xia leaders moved their capital city many times. They lived in different places and worked with tribes around them, sometimes as friends and sometimes as rivals. Some of these tribes later helped to change the leadership.

Old writings tell us that Yu the Great worked hard to help people grow food. He made better ways to move water so crops could grow. People also made drinks and traded with others. They built roads and paths so it was easier for everyone to travel and share things.

Modern studies

The Xia dynasty is an old part of Chinese history, but many people are unsure if it really existed. Some scholars, like Gu Jiegang, began asking questions about the traditional stories of early China in the 1920s. They thought that as time went on, stories about the past got longer and more detailed with new parts added.

Some historians think the Zhou rulers may have created the story of the Xia to help explain why they took over from the Shang rulers. Even though Chinese archaeologists have tried to connect the Xia to the Erlitou culture from around 1900–1500 BC, no one has proven the Xia dynasty really existed.

Scholars also notice that the stories about the Xia often seem like the opposite of the stories about the Shang. For example, where the Shang were linked to the sun and life, the Xia were linked to the moon and death. Some believe the Zhou used these old stories to explain their own rule after the Shang.

There are also old poems and a bronze artifact from later times that mention the Shang rulers defeating the Xia, which suggests the story of the Xia might not have been made up by the Zhou. However, the ancient writings called oracle bones from the Shang time do not mention the Xia at all. Some thinkers think places named in these writings could be connected to the Xia, but this is still not certain.

Archaeological discoveries

See also: Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project

After finding the late Shang capital at Yinxu near modern Anyang, Chinese archaeologists looked for older capitals in the Yellow River area. In 1959, Xu Xusheng explored the Yi–Luo basin and discovered the big Bronze Age site of Erlitou near modern Yanshi. This site had big buildings with rammed-earth bases, which may have been palaces or temples. Later, radiocarbon dating suggested the Erlitou culture lived between 2100 and 1300 BC, matching the traditional Xia dates. Most Chinese archaeologists connect the Xia to Erlitou, but many Western archaeologists think we cannot prove the Xia really existed because the old stories lack clear details.

Better dating from the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project showed the Erlitou culture existed from 1880 to 1520 BC. The project linked all stages of Erlitou to the Xia and said the Shang began around 1600 BC when walled cities appeared at Yanshi and Zhengzhou. Earlier, they included part of the Henan Longshan culture, like the Xinzhai phase, as the start of the Xia. However, no clear change in old artifacts or buildings has been found to match this. Even newer dating in 2005 and 2006 gave tighter time ranges, placing Xinzhai from 1870–1720 BC and Erlitou from 1735–1530 BC.

The only musical instruments found at Erlitou include a qing stone, two small clapper bells (one earthenware, one bronze), and a xun with one finger hole. Because so few instruments survive and there is much uncertainty about the Xia, it is hard to describe the music from this time.

Evidence of a big flood at Jishi Gorge that destroyed the Lajia site around 1920 BC was found. This happened just before the Erlitou culture grew in the middle Yellow River valley and the Yueshi culture in Shandong, after the Longshan culture declined in the North China Plain. Some think this flood may have inspired the myth of Yu the Great and helped start the Erlitou period. They also say this timing supports linking the Xia to Erlitou. However, no proof of big floods at the same time has been found in the North China Plain.

The Cambridge History of Ancient China (1999) marks the start of Chinese history with the Shang dynasty (around 1600–1046 BC), not the Xia. Some Chinese scholars disagree with this view, feeling it ignores their work. Others say the debate comes from different research styles: Western scholars often doubt links between old stories and new discoveries, while Chinese scholars sometimes connect new finds too quickly to the Xia story. This can lead to different interpretations of the same evidence.

Sovereigns

The following table shows the rulers of the Xia dynasty as described in the Records of the Grand Historian. Unlike the list of Shang kings, which matches inscriptions found on oracle bones from that time, no records of Xia rulers have been found at archaeological sites or on Shang dynasty oracle bones.

Family tree