Brahmi script

Brahmi is a writing system from ancient India that first appeared in the 3rd century BCE. It is an abugida, meaning it uses symbols for consonants and adds small marks to show different vowels. Brahmi was used to write many important inscriptions, including the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka, which help historians understand life in ancient India.

The Brahmi script was deciphered in the 19th century by James Prinsep, who worked with scholars in the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta. His work allowed people to read these old inscriptions for the first time in many years.

Today, many writing systems across South and Southeastern Asia are based on Brahmi. These include scripts still used by millions of people. Brahmi also influenced early number systems, contributing to the development of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system we use today.

Texts

The Brahmi script is mentioned in important ancient Indian texts from Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, as well as in their Chinese translations. For example, a chapter in the Lalitavistara Sūtra, called the Lipisala samdarshana parivarta, lists 64 different scripts, with Brahmi listed first. It says that young Siddhartha, who later became the Gautama Buddha, learned Brahmi and other scripts at school.

Early Jaina texts, like the Paṇṇavaṇā Sūtra and the Samavāyāṅga Sūtra, also mention a list of eighteen ancient scripts. In these lists, Brahmi is the first script, and Kharoṣṭhi is the fourth. The lists also include a script called Javanaliya, which was likely Greek.

Origins

The origins of the Brahmi script are still debated among scholars. Some early theories suggested it came from pictographic or acrophonic origins, similar to Egyptian hieroglyphs, but these ideas are now considered speculative and have lost credibility.

Many scholars believe Brahmi was influenced by or derived from Semitic scripts, especially Aramaic. This theory is supported by some historical evidence, though it remains debated. Brahmi shares some features with Semitic scripts but also has significant differences, particularly from the Kharoṣṭhī script, which was used in parts of northwest South Asia.

Regardless of its origins, Brahmi developed extensively in India, adapting to the sounds of local languages. Theories about its connection to the Vedic language's grammar also played a role in its evolution. Some suggest it was created during the reign of Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, while others argue it developed over a longer period before that.

Letter		Name	Phoneme	Origin		Corresponding letter in
Image	Text			Hieroglyphs	Proto-Sinaitic	Aramaic	Hebrew	Syriac	Greek	Brahmi
	𐤀‎	ʾālep	ʾ [ʔ]	𓃾		𐡀‎	א	ܐ	Αα	𑀅
	𐤁‎	bēt	b [b]	𓉐		𐡁‎	ב	ܒ	Ββ	𑀩
	𐤂‎	gīml	g [ɡ]	𓌙		𐡂‎	ג	ܓ	Γγ	𑀕
	𐤃‎	dālet	d [d]	𓇯		𐡃‎	ד	ܕ	Δδ	𑀥

Bühler's aspirate derivations

IAST	–aspirate	+aspirate	origin of aspirate according to Bühler
k/kh			Semitic emphatic (qoph)
g/gh			Semitic emphatic (heth) (hook addition in Bhattiprolu script)
c/ch			curve addition
j/jh			hook addition with some alteration
p/ph			curve addition
b/bh			hook addition with some alteration
t/th			Semitic emphatic (teth)
d/dh			unaspirated glyph back-formed
ṭ/ṭh			unaspirated glyph back-formed as if aspirated glyph with curve
ḍ/ḍh			curve addition

Comparison of North Semitic and Brahmi scripts

Phoenician	Aramaic	Value	Brahmi	Value
		ʾ [ʔ], ML		a
		b [b]		ba
		g [ɡ]		ga
		d [d]		dha
		h [h], ML		ha
		w [w], ML		va
		z [z]		ja
		ḥ [ħ]		gha
		ṭ [tˤ]		tha
		y [j], ML		ya
		k [k]		ka
		l [l]		la
		m [m]		ma
		n [n]		na
		s [s]		ṣa
		ʿ [ʕ], ML		e
		p [p]		pa
		ṣ [sˤ]		ca
		q [q]		kha
		r [r]		ra
		š [ʃ]		śa
		t [t]		ta

History

The Brahmi script is one of the oldest writing systems from ancient India, first appearing fully developed around the 3rd century BCE. Many early Brahmi inscriptions are written in Prakrit, an ancient Indian language, and are found on pillars, temple walls, and other surfaces. Some of the earliest known inscriptions come from the time of Emperor Ashoka.

Brahmi remained fairly unchanged for several centuries. Over time, new styles of writing developed, especially after groups like the Indo-Scythians came to power. These changes made the letters more angular and introduced new ways of writing. Scholars eventually learned how to read Brahmi by comparing it to later scripts and using bilingual inscriptions, which helped them understand the letters and their sounds.

Characteristics

Brahmi is usually written from left to right, like many of its modern descendants. However, some early coins show it written right to left, similar to the Aramaic script. Brahmi is an abugida, meaning each basic symbol stands for a consonant sound, and special marks called diacritics are added to show different vowels. If no vowel mark is added, the consonant is assumed to have the vowel “a”.

Special symbols are used to join consonant sounds together, called conjunct consonants. For example, the combination of “Ka” and “Ya” makes the sound “Kya”. Vowels also have their own letters and marks. There are three main short vowels – a, i, and u – with longer versions of these sounds. Other vowels like e, ai, o, and au are also represented with special symbols. Over time, Brahmi developed more vowel signs for sounds used in other languages.

Evolution of the Brahmi script

The Brahmi script developed over many centuries and is usually divided into three main types.

The first type is called Early Brahmi, also known as the Ashokan script, and was used from the 3rd to the 1st century BCE. The second type is called Middle Brahmi, sometimes known as Kushana Brahmi, which was used from the 1st to the 3rd centuries CE. The third type is called Late Brahmi, also known as the Gupta script, which was used from the 4th to the 6th centuries CE.

Early Brahmi or "Ashokan Brahmi" (3rd–1st century BCE)

Early "Ashokan" Brahmi from the 3rd to 1st century BCE was neat, geometric, and well-organized. It was used to write some of the most famous inscriptions in ancient India, beginning with the Edicts of Ashoka around 250 BCE.

One important inscription is the Rummindei Edict in Lumbini, Nepal, where Ashoka recorded his visit and declared Lumbini as the birthplace of the Buddha. The Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha, near modern Besnagar, was set up around 113 BCE by Heliodorus, an ambassador from the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, and is one of the earliest known inscriptions related to Vaishnavism in India.

Main article: Lumbini pillar inscription

Rummindei pillar, inscription of Ashoka (c. 248 BCE)

Translation (English)	Transliteration (original Brahmi script)	Inscription (Prakrit in the Brahmi script)
When King Devanampriya Priyadarsin had been anointed twenty years, he came himself and worshipped (this spot) because the Buddha Shakyamuni was born here. (He) both caused to be made a stone bearing a horse (?) and caused a stone pillar to be set up, (in order to show) that the Blessed One was born here. (He) made the village of Lummini free of taxes, and paying (only) an eighth share (of the produce). — The Rummindei Edict, one of the Minor Pillar Edicts of Ashoka.	𑀤𑁂𑀯𑀸𑀦𑀁𑀧𑀺𑀬𑁂𑀦 𑀧𑀺𑀬𑀤𑀲𑀺𑀦 𑀮𑀸𑀚𑀺𑀦𑀯𑀻𑀲𑀢𑀺𑀯𑀲𑀸𑀪𑀺𑀲𑀺𑀢𑁂𑀦 Devānaṃpiyena Piyadasina lājina vīsati-vasābhisitena 𑀅𑀢𑀦𑀆𑀕𑀸𑀘 𑀫𑀳𑀻𑀬𑀺𑀢𑁂 𑀳𑀺𑀤𑀩𑀼𑀥𑁂𑀚𑀸𑀢 𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀬𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀺𑀢𑀺 atana āgāca mahīyite hida Budhe jāte Sakyamuni ti 𑀲𑀺𑀮𑀸𑀯𑀺𑀕𑀥𑀪𑀺𑀘𑀸𑀓𑀸𑀳𑀸𑀧𑀺𑀢 𑀲𑀺𑀮𑀸𑀣𑀪𑁂𑀘 𑀉𑀲𑀧𑀸𑀧𑀺𑀢𑁂 silā vigaḍabhī cā kālāpita silā-thabhe ca usapāpite 𑀳𑀺𑀤𑀪𑀕𑀯𑀁𑀚𑀸𑀢𑀢𑀺 𑀮𑀼𑀁𑀫𑀺𑀦𑀺𑀕𑀸𑀫𑁂 𑀉𑀩𑀮𑀺𑀓𑁂𑀓𑀝𑁂 hida Bhagavaṃ jāte ti Luṃmini-gāme ubalike kaṭe 𑀅𑀞𑀪𑀸𑀕𑀺𑀬𑁂𑀘 aṭha-bhāgiye ca — Adapted from transliteration by E. Hultzsch	The Rummindei pillar edict in Lumbini.

Heliodorus pillar inscription (c. 113 BCE)

Translation (English)	Transliteration (original Brahmi script)	Inscription (Prakrit in the Brahmi script)}
This Garuda-standard of Vāsudeva, the God of Gods was erected here by the devotee Heliodoros, the son of Dion, a man of Taxila, sent by the Great Yona King Antialkidas, as ambassador to King Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, the Savior son of the princess from Varanasi, in the fourteenth year of his reign. Three immortal precepts (footsteps)... when practiced lead to heaven: self-restraint, charity, consciousness	𑀤𑁂𑀯𑀤𑁂𑀯𑀲 𑀯𑀸(𑀲𑀼𑀤𑁂)𑀯𑀲 𑀕𑀭𑀼𑀟𑀥𑁆𑀯𑀚𑁄 𑀅𑀬𑀁 Devadevasa Vā[sude]vasa Garuḍadhvaje ayaṃ 𑀓𑀭𑀺𑀢𑁄 𑀇(𑀅) 𑀳𑁂𑀮𑀺𑀉𑁄𑀤𑁄𑀭𑁂𑀡 𑀪𑀸𑀕 karito i[a] Heliodoreṇa bhāga- 𑀯𑀢𑁂𑀦 𑀤𑀺𑀬𑀲 𑀧𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀭𑁂𑀡 𑀢𑀔𑁆𑀔𑀲𑀺𑀮𑀸𑀓𑁂𑀦 vatena Diyasa putreṇa Takhkhasilākena 𑀬𑁄𑀦𑀤𑀢𑁂𑀦 𑀅𑀕𑀢𑁂𑀦 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀭𑀸𑀚𑀲 Yonadatena agatena mahārājasa 𑀅𑀁𑀢𑀮𑀺𑀓𑀺𑀢𑀲 𑀉𑀧𑀁𑀢𑀸 𑀲𑀁𑀓𑀸𑀲𑀁𑀭𑀜𑁄 Aṃtalikitasa upa[ṃ]tā samkāsam-raño 𑀓𑀸𑀲𑀻𑀧𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀲 𑀪𑀸𑀕𑀪𑀤𑁆𑀭𑀲 𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀸𑀢𑀸𑀭𑀲 Kāsīput[r]asa [Bh]āgabhadrasa trātārasa 𑀯𑀲𑁂𑀦 (𑀘𑀢𑀼)𑀤𑀲𑁂𑀁𑀦 𑀭𑀸𑀚𑁂𑀦 𑀯𑀥𑀫𑀸𑀦𑀲 vasena [catu]daseṃna rājena vadhamānasa 𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀺𑀦𑀺 𑀅𑀫𑀼𑀢𑁋𑀧𑀸𑀤𑀸𑀦𑀺 (𑀇𑀫𑁂) (𑀲𑀼)𑀅𑀦𑀼𑀣𑀺𑀢𑀸𑀦𑀺 Trini amuta𑁋pādāni (i me) (su)anuthitāni 𑀦𑁂𑀬𑀁𑀢𑀺 𑀲𑁆𑀯(𑀕𑀁) 𑀤𑀫 𑀘𑀸𑀕 𑀅𑀧𑁆𑀭𑀫𑀸𑀤 neyamti sva(gam) dama cāga apramāda — Adapted from transliterations by E. J. Rapson, Sukthankar, Richard Salomon, and Shane Wallace.	Heliodorus pillar rubbing (inverted colors). The text is in the Brahmi script of the Sunga period.

Middle Brahmi or "Kushana Brahmi" (1st–3rd centuries CE)

Middle Brahmi or "Kushana Brahmi" was used between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. It looks more rounded than earlier forms and changed some letter shapes. New sounds, like certain vowel sounds, were added to help write Sanskrit words better.

We see Middle Brahmi in old coins and statues. For example, coins from a ruler named Chastana have inscriptions like "Of the Rajah, the Great Satrap, son of Ghsamotika, Chashtana." Statues and cave inscriptions from rulers called Western Satraps, such as Nahapana, also used this script. These show how people wrote names and titles many years ago.

Letter	IAST and Sanskrit IPA	Letter	IAST and Sanskrit IPA
	a /ə/		ā /aː/
	i /i/		ī /iː/
	u /u/		ū /uː/
	e /eː/		o /oː/
	ai /əi/		au /əu/
𑀋	ṛ /r̩/	𑀌	ṝ /r̩ː/
𑀍	l̩ /l̩/	𑀎	ḹ /l̩ː/

	Stop								Nasal		Approximant		Fricative
Voicing →	Voiceless				Voiced								Voiceless		Voiced
Aspiration →	No		Yes		No		Yes		No				Yes
Velar		ka /k/		kha /kʰ/		ga /g/		gha /ɡʱ/		ṅa /ŋ/						ha /ɦ/
Palatal		ca /c/		cha /cʰ/		ja /ɟ/		jha /ɟʱ/		ña /ɲ/		ya /j/		śa /ɕ/
Retroflex		ṭa /ʈ/		ṭha /ʈʰ/		ḍa /ɖ/		ḍha /ɖʱ/		ṇa /ɳ/		ra /r/		ṣa /ʂ/
Dental		ta /t̪/		tha /t̪ʰ/		da /d̪/		dha /d̪ʱ/		na /n/		la /l/		sa /s/
Labial		pa /p/		pha /pʰ/		ba /b/		bha /bʱ/		ma /m/		va /w, ʋ/

Late Brahmi or "Gupta Brahmi" (4th–6th centuries CE)

Main article: Gupta script

See also: Gupta Empire

Late Brahmi, also called Gupta Brahmi, was used from the 4th to the 6th centuries CE. It was an important stage in the development of the Brahmi writing system and its many descendant scripts.

Examples of Gupta script can be found on stone carvings, such as those at the Kanheri Caves, and on inscriptions like the Gopika Cave Inscription in Sanskrit at the Barabar Caves in Bihar. Coins from rulers like Mihirakula of the Alchon Huns also used this script. Another example is the Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II.

Letter	IAST and Sanskrit IPA	Letter	IAST and Sanskrit IPA
	a /ə/		ā /aː/
	i /i/		ī /iː/
	u /u/		ū /uː/
	e /eː/		o /oː/
	ai /əi/		au /əu/
𑀋	ṛ /r̩/	𑀌	ṝ /r̩ː/
𑀍	l̩ /l̩/	𑀎	ḹ /l̩ː/

	Stop								Nasal		Approximant		Fricative
Voicing →	Voiceless				Voiced								Voiceless		Voiced
Aspiration →	No		Yes		No		Yes		No				Yes
Velar		ka /k/		kha /kʰ/		ga /g/		gha /ɡʱ/		ṅa /ŋ/						ha /ɦ/
Palatal		ca /c/		cha /cʰ/		ja /ɟ/		jha /ɟʱ/		ña /ɲ/		ya /j/		śa /ɕ/
Retroflex		ṭa /ʈ/		ṭha /ʈʰ/		ḍa /ɖ/		ḍha /ɖʱ/		ṇa /ɳ/		ra /r/		ṣa /ʂ/
Dental		ta /t̪/		tha /t̪ʰ/		da /d̪/		dha /d̪ʱ/		na /n/		la /l/		sa /s/
Labial		pa /p/		pha /pʰ/		ba /b/		bha /bʱ/		ma /m/		va /w, ʋ/

Descendants

Main article: Brahmic scripts

Over many years, Brahmi developed into many different scripts used in various regions. In the north, it led to the Gupta script and later to scripts like Siddhaṃ script and Śāradā script. In the south, it inspired scripts such as the Grantha alphabet, Vatteluttu alphabet, and others used in places like the Philippines, Indonesia, Cambodia, and Burma.

The Brahmi script also influenced scripts in Central Asia, including Tibetan and Tocharian. It evolved into the Nagari script, which later became Devanagari, now used to write languages such as Sanskrit, Marathi, Hindi, and Konkani.

Unicode

Main article: Brahmi (Unicode block)

Early Ashokan Brahmi was added to the Unicode Standard in October 2010 with the release of version 6.0. The Unicode block for Brahmi is U+11000–U+1107F and is part of the Supplementary Multilingual Plane. As of June 2022, there were two non-commercially available fonts that support Brahmi: Noto Sans Brahmi, commissioned by Google, and Adinatha, which covers Tamil Brahmi. Segoe UI Historic, included with Windows 10, also includes Brahmi glyphs.

The Sanskrit word for Brahmi, ब्राह्मी (IAST Brāhmī), in the Brahmi script should be rendered as follows: 𑀩𑁆𑀭𑀸𑀳𑁆𑀫𑀻.