Human

Humans (Homo sapiens, meaning 'thinking man' or 'wise man') are the most abundant and widespread species of primates, known for walking on two legs and having large, complex brains. These brains help humans create advanced tools, develop rich culture, and use sophisticated language. Humans are very social, living in groups such as families and larger states, and they create many different values, social norms, and rituals that shape their society.

Humans are highly intelligent, with a large prefrontal cortex that supports thinking, memory, and self-awareness. They can imagine, plan, and share ideas, which has led to great progress in technology, science, art, and many other areas. Their curiosity drives them to explore the world and understand how things work.

Humans can eat both plants and animals and have used fire to cook food since ancient times. They usually sleep during the day and need water and food to survive. Human history shows how early people moved from hunting and gathering to building permanent settlements and domesticating animals, leading to the rise and fall of many civilizations. Today, humans live all over the world, with over 8.3 billion people in 2026.

Genes and the environment shape human differences in appearance, health, and abilities, but all humans share over 99% of their genes. On average, men are physically stronger, while women often live longer and have higher body fat. The roles of men and women have changed over time in different societies.

Etymology and definition

All modern humans are known as Homo sapiens, a name given by Carl Linnaeus in 1735. The term Homo sapiens means "wise man" or "knowledgeable man." The word human comes from old languages like Latin and French.

Humans are animals, even though many people think of themselves as separate from animals. The word person is often used to describe humans, but there are debates about what it truly means to be a person.

Evolution

Humans are part of the ape family, and our ancestors separated from other apes millions of years ago. Over time, many different human-like species evolved, but only one remains today: Homo sapiens, or modern humans. Early humans lived in Africa and later spread around the world, moving to places like Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas.

Scientists study fossils and DNA to learn about human evolution. They have found that modern humans interbred with other ancient human species, such as Neanderthals, which means we carry a small amount of their DNA. Human evolution involved many changes, including walking on two legs, growing larger brains, and losing most of our body hair.

History

Until about 12,000 years ago, all humans lived as hunter-gatherers. The Neolithic Revolution (the invention of agriculture) first took place in Southwest Asia and spread through large parts of the Old World over the following millennia. It also occurred independently in Mesoamerica, China, Papua New Guinea, and the Sahel and West Savanna regions of Africa.

An urban revolution took place in the 4th millennium BCE with the development of city-states, particularly Sumerian cities located in Mesopotamia. Other major civilizations to develop around this time were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilisation. They invented technology such as wheels, plows and sails. Emerging by 3000 BCE, the Caral–Supe civilization is the oldest complex civilization in the Americas. Astronomy and mathematics were also developed and the Great Pyramid of Giza was built. The Late Bronze Age collapse around 1200 BCE resulted in the disappearance of a number of civilizations and the beginning of the Greek Dark Ages. During this period iron started replacing bronze, leading to the Iron Age.

In the 5th century BCE, history started being recorded as a discipline. Between the 8th and 6th century BCE, Europe entered the classical antiquity age, a period when ancient Greece and ancient Rome flourished. Around this time other civilizations also came to prominence. The Maya civilization started to build cities and create complex calendars. In Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum overtook the declining Kingdom of Kush and facilitated trade between India and the Mediterranean. In West Asia, the Achaemenid Empire's system of centralized governance became the precursor to many later empires, while the Gupta Empire in India and the Han dynasty in China have been described as golden ages in their respective regions.

Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Europe entered the Middle Ages. During this period, Christianity and the Church would act as a source of authority and education. In the Middle East, Islam became the prominent religion and expanded into North Africa. It led to an Islamic Golden Age, inspiring achievements in architecture and the revival of advances in science and technology. The Christian and Islamic worlds would eventually clash, with the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire declaring a series of holy wars.

The early modern period in Europe and the Near East (c. 1450–1800) began with the final defeat of the Byzantine Empire, and the rise of the Ottoman Empire. Europe underwent the Renaissance, starting in the 15th century, and the Age of Discovery began with the exploring and colonizing of new regions. This expansion led to the Atlantic slave trade. This period also marked the Scientific Revolution, with great advances in mathematics, mechanics, astronomy and physiology.

The late modern period (1800–present) saw the Industrial and Technological Revolution bring such discoveries as imaging technology, major innovations in transport, and energy development. The Napoleonic Wars raged through Europe in the early 1800s. A tenuous balance of power among European nations collapsed in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War. In the 1930s, a worldwide economic crisis led to the rise of authoritarian regimes and a Second World War. Following the conclusion of the Second World War in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the remaining global superpowers. This led to a Cold War that saw a struggle for global influence, ending in the collapse of the Soviet Union. The current Information Age, spurred by the development of the Internet and artificial intelligence systems, sees the world becoming increasingly globalized and interconnected.

Habitat and population

Early humans settled near water and natural resources like animals for hunting and land for growing crops. Today, humans use technology like irrigation and urban planning to change their environments, though settlements can still face natural disasters.

Humans live in nearly every part of the world, from tropical rainforests to arctic regions, and even in space through research stations. The human population has grown quickly over time, reaching eight billion in 2022. Most people live in Asia, with others spread across the Americas, Africa, Europe, and Oceania. Many now live in cities, where pollution and crime can be challenges.

Biology

Humans are highly adaptable creatures with unique biological features. They have a complex body structure that includes specialized teeth, opposable thumbs, and a large brain compared to other animals. Humans also have a variety of genes that influence their appearance and health, making each individual unique.

Humans reproduce through internal fertilization and have a gestation period of about 38 weeks. After birth, both mothers and fathers care for their children, who grow slowly and reach maturity around 15 to 17 years old. The human lifespan varies widely, with factors like genetics and lifestyle playing major roles in determining how long someone lives. On average, women tend to live longer than men.

Humans are omnivores, meaning they can eat both plants and animals. Their diet has changed throughout history, from hunting and gathering to farming and modern food production. These dietary changes have influenced human biology and culture in many ways. Despite having enough food globally, uneven distribution leads to both malnutrition and obesity in different parts of the world.

Psychology

Main article: Psychology

The human brain controls many important functions like thinking, reasoning, and understanding. It helps us learn and solve problems, and it’s what makes us unique compared to other animals. Humans have a special part of the brain called the prefrontal cortex that helps us make decisions and think in smart ways.

Humans are also very social and have many ways to express themselves. We can remember past events, imagine the future, and recognize ourselves in mirrors. Sleep is very important for humans, and most people need about eight hours each night to feel rested and healthy. During sleep, we often dream, which can sometimes feel very real and interesting.

Culture

Main articles: Culture and Cultural universal

Humans have special skills that help them create, learn, and share ideas. These abilities let humans build tools, start fires, and talk using language. Learning from others helps keep traditions and cultures alive.

Main article: Language

Language is something only humans have. It lets people share ideas using words, signs, or writing. Humans can talk about things that are far away or not happening now, which helps them share thoughts and feelings.

Main article: The arts

Humans enjoy creating art in many ways, like painting, music, dancing, and storytelling. Art helps people express themselves, share stories, and bring groups together. Making art may have helped early humans solve problems and work as a team.

Main articles: Tool and Technology

Humans have used tools for millions of years. Making tools helped them shape fire, grow food, and build shelters. Over time, humans invented many things like the wheel, paper, and computers, changing how they live.

Main articles: Religion and Spirituality

Many humans believe in religions that help them understand life and the world. These beliefs can include ideas about life after death, the universe, and what is right or wrong. Different people have many kinds of religious beliefs.

Main articles: Science and Philosophy

Humans are good at sharing knowledge and learning new things. They use this knowledge to make discoveries and invent tools. Science helps humans understand the world through testing and observation. Philosophy is about thinking deeply about big questions about life and the universe.

Society

Main article: Society

Society is the system of groups and organizations that come from how people interact. Humans are very social and usually live in large, complex groups. These groups can be as small as families or as large as entire countries. People often sort themselves into groups based on things like money, job, or social standing. These groups have changed a lot over time, from small hunter-gatherer bands to modern nations.

Main article: Gender

In most human societies, people are divided into groups based on whether they are male or female, known as gender roles. These roles can include different behaviors, jobs, and rights for men and women. While these roles can change over time, in many places men have historically had more rights and opportunities than women. Some societies also recognize other gender identities beyond just male and female.

Main article: Kinship

Humans organize relationships through family ties, including parents, children, and other relatives. These family connections are important for passing down traditions, property, and social status. Marriage and other family bonds also play a big role in shaping social structures.

Main article: Ethnic group

People often feel connected to groups based on shared culture, language, history, or traditions. These groups are called ethnic groups and can influence how people see themselves and others. Ethnicity is different from race, which is based more on physical traits.

Main articles: Government and Politics

As communities grew larger, people needed ways to make decisions and organize themselves. This led to the creation of governments. There are many different kinds of governments, from democracies where people vote, to authoritarian regimes where power is concentrated in a few. Many countries work together through international organizations like the United Nations.

Main articles: Trade and Economics

Trading goods and services has been important for humans for a very long time. Early humans traded items like tools and food, which helped them survive and develop new ideas. Over time, trade grew into complex networks, and money became a common way to exchange value.

Main article: Conflict (process)

Further information: War

Humans, like many animals, sometimes fight. While levels of violence vary between societies, organized group fighting, or war, has been part of human history for a long time. Wars have caused many deaths throughout history, but in recent times, there has been a decrease in deaths from global conflicts.