British Raj

The British Raj was the time when the British Crown ruled parts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar from 1858 to 1947. This period is also known as Crown rule in India or direct rule in India.

Before this, a company called the East India Company had controlled the area. After a big uprising called the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British government took over directly.

During the British Raj, the land was called India. It included areas ruled by Britain and some regions ruled by local leaders who followed British orders. India was an important part of the world at this time. It helped start groups like the League of Nations and the United Nations, and Indian teams took part in the Summer Olympics in several years.

The British Raj ended in 1947 when India and Pakistan became independent countries. Before that, parts of Burma (now Myanmar) were also under British control. Burma became its own colony in 1937 and gained independence in 1948. This time was important in shaping the history of many countries today.

Geographical extent

The British Raj covered most of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. Some small areas were controlled by other European countries, like Goa (Portugal) and Pondicherry (France). The land had tall mountains, wide flat areas, long coastlines, dry forests, and dry deserts.

At times, the British also controlled places like Aden, parts of Burma (Lower Burma and Upper Burma), British Somaliland, and the Straits Settlements. Later, Burma became separate from British India and was ruled directly by Britain until it gained independence in 1948. Nearby areas like Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldive Islands were not part of the British Raj, though they had different relationships with Britain.

History

Main article: History of the British Raj

The British Raj was the time when Britain ruled parts of what are now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar from 1858 to 1947. During this time, these areas were known as India. Some parts were directly controlled by Britain, called British India, while others were ruled by local leaders under British oversight.

1858–1868: Rebellion aftermath, critiques, and responses

After a big uprising in 1857, the British changed how they managed India. They wanted better communication between British and Indian people. The army was reorganised. Landowners who did not support the uprising were rewarded.

1858–1880: Railways, canals, Famine Code

In the late 1800s, Britain built many railways, roads, and canals in India. This helped move goods and people. Many farmers lost their land, and several serious famines happened. After one famine, rules were made to help prevent future famines.

1880s–1890s: middle class, Indian National Congress

By 1880, a new middle class grew in India. They were educated and wanted more say in their country’s government. In 1885, they formed the Indian National Congress to discuss changes and challenge British rule.

1870s–1906: Muslim social movements, Muslim League

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Muslim leaders felt they needed more representation. In 1906, they formed the All-India Muslim League to ask for separate areas where Muslims were the majority.

1905–1911: Partition of Bengal, Swadeshi, violence

In 1905, the British split the Bengal region, which caused anger among Indians. Many started boycotting British goods and making their own products instead, called the Swadeshi movement.

1914–1918: First World War, Lucknow Pact, Home Rule leagues

World War I brought big changes. Many Indians joined the war effort, which led to calls for more self-government. In 1916, the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League agreed on more self-rule in the Lucknow Pact. Two Home Rule Leagues were also started to push for more Indian control.

1915–1918: return of Gandhi

In 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India after working for rights in South Africa. He started using non-violent protests, called Satyagraha, to fight for India’s independence.

1916–1919: Montagu–Chelmsford reforms

In 1916, new reforms were suggested to give Indians more say in government. The Government of India Act in 1919 allowed more Indians to vote and take part in local governments, though British control was still strong.

1917–1919: Rowlatt Act

In 1919, the British passed the Rowlatt Act, which gave them extra powers to arrest people without trials. This made many Indians very angry.

1919–1929: Jallianwala, non-cooperation

In 1919, British soldiers shot at a peaceful gathering in Amritsar, which upset many Indians. Gandhi started a movement of non-cooperation, where people refused to work with the British government.

Government of India Act, 1935

In 1935, new rules were made to give Indian provinces more power, but British control remained. Elections were held, and the Indian National Congress won in several provinces.

1939–1945: World War II

When World War II started in 1939, Britain declared war for India without asking Indian leaders. This led to protests and the Quit India Movement in 1942, where people demanded immediate British leave.

1946–1947: Independence, partition

By 1946, Britain decided to leave India. In 1947, India and Pakistan became independent countries. Many people had to move to new homes because of the division, and there was much sadness and difficulty during this time.

Timeline of major events, legislation, and public works

British India and the princely states

Main articles: Presidencies and provinces of British India, Princely state, and Subdivisions of British India

During the British Raj, India was split into two parts: British India and the Princely States. British India was ruled directly by the British government. The Princely States had local leaders but followed British guidance.

The British controlled 175 larger princely states and about 500 smaller ones. These states had their own rulers but followed British rules for defense and foreign affairs. Many small states were very tiny, some smaller than 10 square miles. The British helped with daily tasks for many of these states.

Major provinces

Main article: Presidencies and provinces of British India

At the start of the 20th century, British India had eight main areas called provinces. Each was run by a governor or a lieutenant-governor.

Minor provinces

There were also a few smaller areas run by a chief commissioner:

Princely states

Main article: Princely state

A Princely State was a region in India ruled by a local leader but under a British agreement. There were 565 of these states when India gained independence in 1947. These states were not part of British India but followed British rules for defense and foreign matters. The British also had influence over the internal affairs of these states.

The princely states were grouped into areas called agencies and residencies.

Organisation

After a big uprising in 1857, changes were made to how India was governed. These changes affected the government in London, the main government in Calcutta, and the local governments in different areas.

In London, a special officer called the Secretary of State for India and a group of advisors helped make decisions about India. In Calcutta, the leader, called the viceroy, was responsible to the Secretary of State in London. The viceroy had a group of advisors to help with different tasks.

Laws in India were made by groups called Legislative Councils, which included both British officials and Indian members. These laws needed approval from the Secretary of State in London.

From 1937, the way India was governed changed again. New areas like Sind and Orissa were created, and some places like Burma became separate.

The leader in India, the viceroy, was also the head of a group called the Indian Legislature, which had two parts: an upper house and a lower house. The viceroy could make important decisions if needed.

British India was divided into different areas called provinces and presidencies. By 1947, there were 17 of these areas, each run by a governor or a chief commissioner. These areas were further divided into smaller parts called districts, which were the main local units of government.

Each province or presidency had its own group of lawmakers. The governor of each area had the power to approve or reject laws made by these groups.

Economy

Further information: Economy of India under the British Raj and Economic history of India

Economic trends

After India became free, its economy grew fast. Farming got better in the 1870s with new seeds and ways to help crops grow. But many people were still poor, and life was hard for farmers. The British mostly grew crops like cotton and tea to sell, which helped Britain more than India.

India’s share of the world’s wealth fell a lot during this time. Some historians think Britain took more from India than it gave. Others think Britain helped in some ways by working with local leaders.

Industry

When Britain stopped letting one company control all trade in 1813, many British goods, like cloth, came into India. This hurt India’s own cloth-making because British cloth was cheaper. Only a few Indian businesses, like the Tata family, could compete by making better products.

Railways

Main article: Rail transport in India § History

Britain built many railways in India in the late 1800s, making it one of the biggest railway networks in the world. At first, British people ran the railways, but later Indians helped build and work on them. The railways helped move people and goods and were important for the British government to control the country.

Irrigation

Main article: Irrigation in India

The British built many canals to help water fields. This helped farmers grow more crops, especially in places like Assam. By 1900, India had the biggest irrigation system in the world.

Economic impact of the Raj

Historians still discuss whether British rule helped or hurt India’s economy in the long run. Some say Britain took a lot from India and didn’t help it grow. Others say Britain brought some benefits by working with local leaders. The British kept many old tax systems and didn’t change everything suddenly.

Demography

Main articles: Census of British India, Demographics of India, Demographics of Myanmar, Demographics of Pakistan, and Demographics of Bangladesh

The area that became the British Raj had about 100 million people in 1600. The number stayed about the same until the 1800s. By 1881, the first census showed the population had grown to 255 million.

Since 1881, studies have looked at how the population changed and where people lived. They studied cities like Delhi, Greater Bombay, and Calcutta.

Death rates went down between 1920 and 1945 mainly because of vaccines. Other reasons included better incomes, healthier living conditions, improved food, cleaner environments, and better health policies and medical care.

Cities were very crowded, which caused health problems. A report from 1938 explained that in busy areas, houses were built very close together. There were also problems with garbage and sewage, and not enough clean places for people to use the bathroom.

Famines, epidemics, and public health

Main articles: Famine in India § British rule, and Timeline of major famines in India during British rule

When Britain ruled India, there were many times when food ran out, called famines. Big famines happened from 1876 to 1878 and from 1899 to 1900. Many people died during these hard times.

Diseases were also a big problem. A sickness called cholera began in Bengal and spread across India. Many people died from it. Later, a disease called the plague spread and caused many deaths in India too. A scientist named Waldemar Haffkine worked in India and helped make medicines to fight cholera and the plague.

Mosquitoes were found to carry a sickness called malaria, which a British doctor named Sir Ronald Ross discovered. Efforts were made to reduce diseases like leprosy and smallpox through laws and vaccination programs. These efforts helped save many lives by the end of the 19th century.

Education

Universities were set up in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1857, before big changes in the country. By 1890, about 60,000 Indians had finished their studies, mostly in subjects like the liberal arts or law. Many of these graduates went on to work in government jobs or became lawyers.

By 1887, most middle-level government jobs were held by people from different groups, while the top jobs were mostly held by people from Britain. The government and local helpers opened many schools and colleges, and by 1911, over 36,000 students were enrolled. This number grew to 145,000 by 1939. These schools taught using British styles, focusing on English books and European history. Over time, students began to feel strongly about India's future.