Annexation

Annexation is when one country takes control of another country's land by force. This usually happens after a military occupation, where soldiers from one country move into another area. According to international law, this action is generally considered wrong and not allowed.

There are some situations where annexation might be accepted if many other countries and international groups agree to it. However, countries that do this often do not use the word "annexation" to describe what they are doing. For example, in cases where Israel, Morocco, and Russia have taken control of areas that are still disputed, they have not called it annexation. Instead, they use different terms to explain their actions.

Evolution of international law

See also: Right of conquest

Further information: Uti possidetis § Uti possidetis as a doctrine for the acquisition of territory in international law

Illegality

Rules about when countries can use force changed a lot in the 1900s. Important agreements like the 1907 Porter Convention, the 1920 Covenant of the League of Nations, and the 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact helped shape these rules. Today, Chapter I of the United Nations Charter clearly states that countries must not threaten or use force against another country’s land or independence.

These ideas were again confirmed in 1970. Because using force to take land is not allowed, there has been debate about whether a country can truly own land taken this way. Taking another country’s land by force is considered a serious wrong according to international law.

Occupation and annexation

When a country takes land by force, international law still sees that land as occupied. Special rules protect people in such areas, making it hard for the occupying country to claim the land as its own. The Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 added more protection for civilians during such situations.

Annexations since the founding of the United Nations

Unresolved

Israeli annexations

East Jerusalem

Main articles: Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem and Jerusalem Law

During the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel captured East Jerusalem, a part of the West Bank, from Jordan. Jordan had previously taken control of the West Bank in 1950, but this was not widely accepted. In 1967, Israel extended its laws to East Jerusalem, bringing it under Israeli control. In 1980, Israel passed a law stating that Jerusalem is its united capital. The United Nations and many countries did not agree with this and said it was not right.

West Bank excluding East Jerusalem

See also: Proposed Israeli annexation of the West Bank

There has been discussion about whether Israel has been slowly taking control of more areas in the West Bank without officially saying so.

Golan Heights

Main article: Golan Heights Law

Israel took control of part of the Golan Heights from Syria during the 1967 Six-Day War. In 1981, Israel passed a law to include the Golan Heights under its control. The United Nations said this was not right. Most of the Syrian people in the area kept their Syrian identity and did not want to become Israeli citizens.

Moroccan annexation of Western Sahara

The annexation of Western Sahara happened in two steps in 1976 and 1979. After Spain left the area, Morocco and Mauritania took control. Later, Mauritania left, and Morocco took over the rest. The United Nations tried to help find a solution, but it is still not settled. Some people in the area want their own country.

Russian annexations

Main articles: 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea and Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts

In 2014, Russia took control of the Crimean Peninsula from Ukraine. Russia said it was joining back with Crimea because it had once been part of Russia. Many countries did not agree and still consider Crimea to be part of Ukraine.

In 2022, during a conflict between Russia and Ukraine, Russia claimed to take control of several areas in Ukraine after local votes. Ukraine and most countries still say these areas are part of Ukraine.

Subsequently withdrawn

Ethiopian annexation of Eritrea

In 1952, Ethiopia and Eritrea formed a union. In 1962, Ethiopia took full control of Eritrea, leading to a long fight for independence.

Mauritanian annexation of the southern third of Western Sahara

In 1979, Mauritania stopped its claim to part of Western Sahara.

Jordanian annexation of the West Bank

Main article: Jordanian annexation of the West Bank

In 1950, Jordan took control of the West Bank after a war. Only a few countries recognized this. Jordan kept control until 1967 when Israel took over. Jordan stopped claiming the area in 1988.

Indonesian annexation of East Timor

Main article: Indonesian invasion of East Timor

See also: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

In 1975, Indonesia took control of East Timor after invading. They controlled it for many years, but the people of East Timor resisted. In 1999, the people voted to become independent, and in 2002, East Timor became its own country again, called Timor-Leste.

Iraqi annexation of Kuwait

Main article: Invasion of Kuwait

In 1990, Iraq invaded and took control of Kuwait, saying it was part of Iraq. The United Nations and other countries said this was wrong. A coalition of countries, led by the United States, fought to free Kuwait, and Iraq’s control ended.

Subsequently legalized

Chinese annexation of Tibet

See also: Tibetan sovereignty debate

China took control of Tibet in 1950 after a conflict. Tibet became part of China following an agreement in 1951. Some people believe the agreement was made under pressure, but Tibet is now recognized as part of China.

Indian annexations

Hyderabad

In 1948, India took control of Hyderabad after a short war. Hyderabad became part of India.

Goa, Daman and Diu

In 1961, India took control of Goa, Daman, and Diu from Portugal after a short conflict. These areas became part of India.

Sikkim

Main article: 1975 Sikkimese monarchy referendum

Sikkim was a small country near India. In 1975, after pressure and a vote, Sikkim decided to join India and became its 22nd state.

Indonesian annexation of Western New Guinea

See also: West New Guinea dispute

In 1969, Western New Guinea became part of Indonesia after a vote supervised by the United Nations. Some people in the area still want to be independent.

North Vietnamese annexation of South Vietnam

See also: Reunification Day

In 1975, North Vietnam took control of South Vietnam after a war. The two countries became one Vietnam in 1976.

Other

Queen Maud Land

Main article: Queen Maud Land

In 2015, Norway claimed a part of Queen Maud Land that had not been claimed before.

British annexation of Rockall

Main article: Rockall

In 1955, the United Kingdom sent people to Rockall, a small rock in the ocean, and claimed it as their territory. However, this claim is not fully recognized by other countries.