Canada in World War I

The history of Canada in World War I began on August 4, 1914, when the United Kingdom entered the First World War by declaring war on Germany. Because Canada was a British Dominion at the time, it joined the war automatically. The Canadian government decided how much it would help, and created a special fighting group called the Canadian Expeditionary Force.

Canada played an important role in the war. For the first time, Canadian soldiers fought together as their own unit. They fought in big battles like the Somme, Vimy, and Passchendaele. By the end of the war, Canada had lost 67,000 people and many more were hurt.

Most people of British heritage in Canada supported the war, feeling it was their duty to help Britain. Even Sir Wilfrid Laurier, who was French-Canadian, agreed at first. However, later on, there were disagreements about making people join the army. This caused tension between French and English speakers in Canada.

Beginning

Further information: Home front during World War I § Canada

Preparations

Before the war started, Canada's army was called the Canadian Militia. It had a small regular army and a larger group of part-time soldiers. The leader in charge of the army, the Minister of Militia and Defence, Sam Hughes, was told by the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Borden, to get ready to send soldiers to fight overseas. At that time, Canada only had about 3,100 regular soldiers and a very small navy.

Plans to use the existing militia were changed. Instead, Canada created a brand-new army called the Canadian Expeditionary Force. This new army was organized into numbered groups and reported to a special ministry. Even though the army was put together quickly, it had some problems, like not enough experienced leaders.

Participation

About 600,000 men and women joined the war effort as nurses, soldiers, and chaplains. At first, people who were not white or who were born in countries that were fighting against Canada were not allowed to join. For example, when Black people from Sydney, Nova Scotia wanted to join, they were told it was only for white people.

However, over time, some groups were allowed to join. In 1915, Indigenous people could enlist and joined units like the 114th Battalion. About 3,500 Indigenous people served, though numbers are not exact because records were incomplete.

In 1916, after many letters asking for it, an all-Black unit called the No. 2 Construction Battalion was formed. This was the only all-Black unit in Canadian military history. It included soldiers from both Canada and the United States.

Some Canadian Japanese also tried to join and a few were allowed. There is a monument for them in British Columbia today.

A special agreement let thousands of Chinese men join a group called the Chinese Labour Corps. They were mainly poor men from China and were promised jobs that were not fighting. They were secretly brought to Canada and trained before being sent across the country.

Field formations

Canadian Corps

Main article: Canadian Corps

The Canadian Corps was created in September 1915 when the 2nd Canadian Division arrived in France. Most of the soldiers were volunteers because mandatory service wasn’t introduced until the war ended (see Conscription Crisis of 1917). The corps grew with the 3rd Canadian Division joining in December 1915 and the 4th Canadian Division in August 1916. Plans for a 5th Canadian Division started in February 1917, but it was broken up in February 1918 to help strengthen the other divisions. Even though the corps was part of the British Army, Canadian leaders wanted them to fight together as one group, especially after the Battle of the Somme. This helped create a strong Canadian military identity and better teamwork in battles.

The corps was first led by Lieutenant General Sir Edwin Alderson until 1916. Then, Lieutenant General Sir Julian Byng, later Lord Byng of Vimy and Governor General of Canada, took command. When Byng moved to a bigger role in mid-1917, General Sir Arthur Currie, the leader of the 1st Division, became the first Canadian to command the corps. By the end of the war, the Canadian Corps was one of the best and most respected groups fighting on the Western Front.

Canadian Cavalry Brigade

Main article: Canadian Cavalry Brigade

The Canadian Cavalry Brigade reached France in 1915. It started with three Canadian regiments and one British regiment but became fully Canadian in January 1916. The brigade operated separately from the Canadian Corps and served under different British cavalry divisions. It fought in several battles, including the Battle of Moreuil Wood on April 30, 1918.

Western Front

Further information: Western Front and List of Canadian battles during World War I in France and Flanders

1915

See also: Winter operations 1914–1915, Second Battle of Artois, and Third Battle of Artois

Neuve Chapelle

Main article: Battle of Neuve Chapelle

The Canadian Expeditionary Force fought their first battle in March 1915 in the French town of Neuve Chapelle. After arriving from Salisbury Plain in England, the Canadian forces were told to stop the Germans from sending more troops to the area. This helped the British 1st Army, led by General Douglas Haig, push through German lines and take new land.

This battle showed Canadians that they needed better ways to spot the enemy and send messages quickly. The old ways of communicating were too slow and easy to break.

Second Battle of Ypres

Main article: Second Battle of Ypres

In early April 1915, soldiers of the 1st Canadian Division moved to help where the British and Allied lines were weak. On April 22, the Germans used poison gas for the first time in the war. They released 160 tons of chlorine gas from their trenches into the wind. This gas hurt many soldiers, and the Canadians were the only ones who could still hold their ground.

All night, the Canadians worked hard to fix the gap in their lines. On April 24, the Germans attacked again with gas. In these two days of fighting, the Canadians lost over 6,000 men, with more than 2,000 dying.

1916

See also: Actions of St Eloi Craters and Battle of Mont Sorrel

Battle of the Somme

Main article: Battle of the Somme

The next place Canadians fought was at the Battle of the Somme from late 1916. It started to help the French soldiers who were struggling at the Battle of Verdun, but the fighting was very hard on both sides.

The battle began on July 1, 1916. The first soldiers to go over the top were from the Royal Newfoundland Regiment. At this time, Newfoundland was not part of Canada but was its own country. They fought as part of the 29th Division, not the Canadian Corps. The attack went very badly for the Newfoundlanders. Of the 801 men who started, only 68 were left by the next day, and every officer was killed.

The Canadian Corps joined the battle in September to take the town of Courcelette, France. In a big attack on September 15, the Canadian Corps attacked a long stretch of land west of Courcelette. By November 11, the 4th Canadian Division took most of the German trenches in Courcelette and then joined the Canadian Corps at Vimy Ridge.

The Battle of the Somme caused more than 24,000 Canadian losses. But it also made Canadian units known as strong fighters. As British Prime Minister Lloyd George wrote, “The Canadians played a part of such distinction that thenceforward they were marked out as shock troops; for the remainder of the war they were brought along to head the assault in one great battle after another. Whenever the Germans found the Canadian Corps coming into the line they prepared for the worst.”

1917

Battle of Vimy Ridge

Main article: Battle of Vimy Ridge

For the first time, all four Canadian divisions fought together as one group. They were joined by the British 5th Infantry Division and had support from artillery and engineers. The Canadian Corps was also supported on one side by the 24th British Division of I Corps and on the other side by XVII Corps. The attack began early on April 9, 1917. Every gun the Canadians had started firing.

The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Divisions reached their first goals by 6:25 a.m. The 4th Canadian Division had more trouble and took longer to reach its first goal. After a short rest, they started moving again. By around 7:00 a.m., the 1st Canadian Division had taken half of its second goal, and the 2nd Canadian Division had reached its second goal and taken the town of Les Tilleuls. The 3rd Canadian Division also reached its part of the second goal, but had to stop because its left side was open because the 4th Canadian Division had not yet taken the top of the ridge. It was not until 11:00 a.m. that the German army tried to fight back, by which time only the 4th Canadian Division had not reached its goal.

Three new groups of soldiers were moved up to the second goal by 9:30 a.m. on April 10 to help the attack. They moved past the soldiers already there and went to the third goal. By around 11:00 a.m., the third goal, including Hill 135 and the town of Thélus, had been taken. The attack stopped for a bit to let soldiers rest and bring forward more machines. Shortly before 1 p.m., the attack started again and the fourth goal was taken around 2:00 p.m. By this time, only part of Hill 145 and “the Pimple,” a strong point outside of Givenchy-en-Gohelle, were still held by the Germans. Fresh soldiers forced the Germans from the rest of Hill 145 around 3:15 p.m. and by nightfall on April 12, the only goal left was “the Pimple.” With help from guns and the 24th British Division of I Corps, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked the German soldiers and took “the Pimple” on April 12, ending the battle. By nightfall on April 12, 1917, the Canadian Corps controlled the ridge.

The corps lost 10,602 men; 3,598 died and 7,004 were hurt. The German army lost many men, with about 4,000 taken prisoner. Four Victoria Crosses, the highest award for bravery, were given. The Germans did not try to take the ridge back, and it stayed under British control until the end of the war. This success is often seen as an important moment in the growth of Canadian national pride during the war.

Battle of Passchendaele

Main article: Second Battle of Passchendaele

The four divisions of the Canadian Corps moved to the Ypres Salient to help make more advances at Passchendaele. The Canadian Corps took over from II Anzac Corps on October 18 from their places along the valley between Gravenstafel Ridge and the heights at Passchendaele. It was almost the same place as the 1st Canadian Division had been in April 1915. The Canadian Corps planned to attack in three stages, each with small goals, done three or more days apart. The planned dates for these stages were October 26, October 30, and November 6.

The first stage began on the morning of October 26. The 3rd Canadian Division was told to take the north side, which included the steep ground of the Bellevue spur. South of the Ravebeek creek, the 4th Canadian Division was to take Decline Copse, which was on the Ypres-Roulers railway. The 3rd Canadian Division took Wolf Copse and reached its goal line but had to pull back a line to connect with the British army next to them. The 4th Canadian Division first took all its goals but later had to pull back from Decline Copse because of attacks by the Germans and problems with talking to the Australian units to the south.

The second stage began on October 30 and was meant to take the places not taken in the first stage and get a good place for the final attack on Passchendaele. The south side was to take the strong point at Crest Farm while the north side was to take the small place called Meetcheele and the Goudberg area near the Canadian Corps' north edge. The south side quickly took Crest Farm and started sending groups past their goal line and into Passchendaele itself. The north side faced very strong fighting from the Germans. The 3rd Canadian Division took Vapour Farm at the edge of the corps, Furst Farm west of Meetcheele, and the crossroads at Meetcheele, but did not reach its full goal line.

To give time for the armies to switch places, there was a planned pause of seven days between the second and third stages. The British Second Army was told to take over part of the British Fifth Army’s lines next to the Canadian Corps, so the central part of the attack could happen under one commander. Three days without rain between November 3 and 5 helped prepare and reorganize the troops for the next stage. The third stage began on the morning of November 6 with the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions taking over from the 3rd and 4th Canadian Divisions. Less than three hours after the attack started, many groups had reached their final goals and the town of Passchendaele had been taken.

A final successful attack to take the last high ground north of the town near Hill 52 was started on November 11. This attack on November 11 ended the long Battle of Passchendaele. The Second Battle of Passchendaele cost the Canadian Corps 15,654 losses with over 4,000 dying in 16 days of fighting.

1918

See also: German spring offensive

Hundred Days Offensive

Main articles: Hundred Days Offensive and Canada's Hundred Days

Over the last three months, Canadian troops fought in several places. The first was near where the German army had a strong position on August 8, where the Canadian Corps (along with New Zealanders, Australians, French, and British) led the attack on the German army at Amiens. In this battle, the German army’s spirit was broken. In Ludendorff’s words, the battle of Arras was a “black day for the German army.” After breaking through at Amiens, the Canadians moved back to Arras to help break the Hindenburg Line there.

Between August 26 and September 2, the Canadian Corps made several attacks near the German lines at Canal du Nord. On September 27, 1918, the Canadian Corps broke through the Hindenburg Line by crossing a dry part of the Canal du Nord. The operation ended successfully on October 11, 1918, when Canadian forces drove the Germans out of their main supply point in the Battle of Cambrai. The corps went on to win quickly at Denain and Valenciennes and on the last day of the war marched successfully to Mons.

Even though they were very successful, this time was also very hard, with the Canadian Corps losing 46,000 men in the last hundred days of the Great War. The last Canadian to die was Private George Lawrence Price, two minutes before the armistice at 11 a.m. on November 11.

Homecoming

It took months to bring Canada’s soldiers home after the war ended. Eager to go home, some soldiers rioted in March 1919 to try to make things happen faster.

Casualties

From 1914 to 1919, half of Canada’s medical services were used for the war in the Canadian Army Medical Corps (CAMC). The medical service before the war, started in 1904, had only 23 officers. It grew to include 1,525 medical officers, 1,901 nursing sisters, and 15,624 other workers. CAMC had 36,000 hospital beds overseas and 12,000 at home. It included almost half of all doctors working and many leaders in the medical field. They were all needed. Of the soldiers on the front lines, more than one-third — 154,000 — were hurt but survived, and four out of five of those returned to fight. However, another 12,000 died from their wounds. In total another 39,000 soldiers were killed right away. Venereal disease became a big problem, with 29% of all Canadian troops affected by 1915.

Atlantic campaign

Further information: Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I

See also: History of the Royal Canadian Navy and List of Royal Canadian Navy ships of the First World War

When World War I began on August 5, 1914, Canada quickly joined the fight. Two Canadian government ships, CGS Canada (renamed HMCS Canada) and CGS Margaret, started serving in the navy along with HMCS Niobe, HMCS Rainbow, and two submarines, HMCS CC-1 and HMCS CC-2. Many Canadian sailors chose to join either the Royal Navy or Canada's own navy.

During the early months of the war, HMCS Rainbow patrolled along the west coast of North America, going as far south as Panama. Later, most of its crew moved to the east coast, and the ship was taken out of service by 1917. HMCS Niobe patrolled near New York City but returned to Halifax in 1915 and was later badly damaged in a big explosion in 1917.

The submarines HMCS CC-1 and HMCS CC-2 spent the first three years of the war in the Pacific Ocean. In 1917, they moved to Halifax and became the first Canadian ships to pass through the Panama Canal. They arrived in Halifax on October 17, 1917, but were considered too old for further duty and were broken up in 1920.

In June 1918, a Canadian hospital ship named HMHS Llandovery Castle was sunk by an enemy ship. Sadly, many lives were lost in this event, making it one of the worst naval disasters for Canada in the war.

On September 5, 1918, Canada formed its own air service called the Royal Canadian Naval Air Service to help find and stop enemy submarines using flying boats. They used a base at Eastern Passage, Nova Scotia, but after the war ended on November 11, 1918, this service was stopped.

Home Front

Conscription

Main article: Conscription Crisis of 1917

World War I caused big disagreements between French and British Canadians. Before the war, many French Canadians did not want to fight for British interests. This tension grew when Prime Minister Robert Borden passed the Canadian Military Service Act of 1917. This law made people join the army, but it was very unpopular in Quebec. Leaders like Henri Bourassa and Sir Wilfrid Laurier spoke against it, saying the war divided Canadians. In the 1917 election, Borden convinced many English-speaking people to support him, and his party won most seats, except in Quebec.

Indian nationalists

Main article: Komagata Maru incident

Some Indian nationalists in Canada were part of the Ghadar Party. They were involved in the Komagata Maru incident, where a ship carrying Indian immigrants, the SS Komagata Maru, was not allowed into Canada and turned away. When it returned to India, there was a fight that led to some deaths. This showed the difficult relations between Canada and Indian immigrants at the time.

Women

Main article: Canadian women in the World Wars

During World War I, Canadian women helped in many ways. They worked in factories, raised money, and served as nurses far from home. Women also knitted socks, rolled bandages, and collected supplies for soldiers. Because there were fewer men, women took on jobs usually done by men, like working in banks, on farms, and even in factories. They did this work for less pay, but their efforts were important to support the war effort. By the end of the war, women had earned the right to vote and were becoming more independent.

Influence on Canada

National identity

The First World War had a big effect on how Canadians saw themselves. Before the war, most English-speaking Canadians felt strong ties to both Canada and the British Empire. They thought of themselves as both Canadian and British. However, some French-speaking Canadians felt more independent from Britain.

Some historians believe the war helped Canada become more independent. They say it made Canadians feel more proud of their country and less tied to Britain. Others disagree, saying most English-speaking Canadians still felt closely linked to Britain after the war.

Art and literature

The war inspired many famous works. “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae, a Canadian soldier, became a well-known poem. It helped make the remembrance poppy a symbol of Remembrance Day. Another famous book, “Rilla of Ingleside” by Lucy Maud Montgomery, tells the story of a Canadian family during the war while waiting for their sons to return from fighting overseas.