Century of humiliation

The century of humiliation (simplified Chinese: 百年国耻; traditional Chinese: 百年國恥; pinyin: bǎinián guóchǐ) is a Chinese historiographical idea about a tough time in history for China. This period started after the end of the First Opium War in 1842 and ended in 1943 when countries agreed to end unfair treaties with China.

During this time, China faced many problems. The Qing dynasty and later the Republic of China were weak and often defeated. Other countries like Western powers, Russia, and Japan took control of parts of China and made unfair rules.

The idea of this "humiliation" became stronger after China lost the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895. Many Chinese people felt very sad and angry about their country's situation. This feeling grew even more when Japan made many demands in 1915 and when China was treated unfairly in the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.

Both big Chinese groups, the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party, used this idea to inspire people to stand up for their country. Even though the unfair treaties ended, this time period is still very important in Chinese thoughts and stories today.

History

Chinese nationalists in the 1920s and 1930s looked back to the mid-19th century, just before the First Opium War, as the start of a difficult time for Qing China.

During this time, China faced many defeats and losses against foreign powers. These included:

• Western and Japanese trade in opium to China (1800s–1940s)
• Defeat in the First Opium War (1839–1842) by the British and the occupation of Hong Kong.
• The unequal treaties (in particular, Nanjing, Whampoa, Aigun, and Shimonoseki)
• Defeat in the Second Opium War (1856–1860) and the loss of the Old Summer Palace by Anglo-French forces.^: 24 
• The signing of the "unequal treaties" of Aigun (1858) and Peking (1860) during the Second Opium War, which gave Outer Manchuria to Russia.
• The partial defeat during the Sino-French War (1884–1885), which resulted in losing control over Vietnam and influence in the Indochinese Peninsula.
• The British Sikkim expedition (1888).
• Defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) by Japan, which resulted in the Japanese colonization of Taiwan and influence over Korea.
• The Pavlov Agreement that led to the Russian occupation of Liaodong (1898).
• The Eight-Nation Alliance invasion to stop the Boxer uprising (1899–1901) and the resulting Boxer Protocol by which several nations imposed large payments on China.
• The Russian invasion of Manchuria (1900), which led to attacks on Chinese people in the Sixty-Four Villages East of the River.
• The Japanese invasion of Liaodong during the Russo-Japanese War (1905).
• The British expedition to Tibet (1903–1904)
• The Twenty-One Demands (1915) by Japan, which would have increased Japanese control of China.
• The Treaty of Versailles (1919) in which German territory in China was given to Japan and led to the anti-imperialist May Fourth Movement.
• The Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931–1932)
• The Soviet invasion of Xinjiang (January–April 1934)
• The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)

During this time, China faced internal problems, lost most of the wars it fought, and was often forced to make big concessions to powerful nations through unequal treaties. China had to pay large amounts of reparations, open up ports for trade, lease or cede territories to other countries, and give up some of its control. This made China's economy and political stability weaker. These events made many Chinese people feel their country was weak, and this idea became important in Chinese history.

End of humiliation

During World War II, some rules that limited China's control were ended in 1943 by the United Kingdom and the United States. After the war, Vichy France also gave up control of areas in China.

Leaders in China announced the end of this difficult time in different ways. One leader said it ended in 1943 when unfair treaties were canceled, and another said it ended in 1949 when a new government began. Some people still talk about later events as the true end of this period.

Implications

The idea of the Century of Humiliation is often used by the Chinese Communist Party to talk about China's history and its place in the world today. It reminds people of times when China felt weak and controlled by other countries. This idea has been used during big events, like when there were protests about Tibetan independence during the 2008 Beijing Olympics torch relay, or when there were disagreements between China and other nations.

Under Xi Jinping, this idea has become very important in teaching people about China's history. Schools, museums, and many places now teach about this time to help people feel proud of their country and to support the government's goals. Leaders often talk about this history when discussing disagreements with other countries, like in areas near the South China Sea or with places like Taiwan. They see these issues as linked to the past, and solving them as part of making China strong again.

Commentary and criticism

Main articles: Military history of China before 1912 § Modernization, and Self-Strengthening Movement

Historians believe that the Qing dynasty faced challenges from foreign powers mainly because of its weak navy, though it had success on land against Western forces. For example, during the First Opium War, China did not have a strong navy to defend itself, allowing British ships to move freely. Later, in the Second Opium War, Chinese forces could not stop foreign ships from reaching areas close to Beijing. However, on land, China managed to handle internal uprisings, negotiate with Russia, and even defeat French troops during the Sino-French War.

Some historians argue that it’s too simple to say China refused to change or could not fight Western armies. After facing several defeats, China worked hard to modernize its military in the late 1800s. They bought weapons from other countries and made their own in factories, like the Hanyang Arsenal during a time of tension called the Boxer Rebellion. Also, many ordinary people lived far from the areas controlled by foreign powers and continued their daily lives without feeling affected by these events.