History of China

The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization was traditionally thought to have first emerged in the Yellow River or Huang He valley, which along with the Yangtze basin constitutes the geographic core of the Chinese cultural sphere.

The Neolithic period saw increasingly complex polities begin to emerge along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. The earliest surviving written Chinese dates to roughly 1250 BC, consisting of divinations inscribed on oracle bones in the Shang Dynasty.

China was first united under a single imperial state by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC. Orthography, weights, measures, and law were all standardized. The Chinese empire reached some of its farthest geographical extents during the Han dynasty. Confucianism was officially sanctioned and its core texts were edited into their received forms.

The 1911 Xinhai Revolution, led by Sun Yat-sen, created the Republic of China. After the Communist victory, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. After Mao's death, the government began the reform and opening up under Deng Xiaoping, and China became the world's fastest-growing major economy.

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistory of China

Long ago, the land we now call China was home to early humans. Around 1.7 million years ago, a group known as Homo erectus lived in southern China. They used simple tools and lived near forests and lakes.

Later, around 120,000 years ago, modern humans, known as H. sapiens, appeared in China. During this time, people began to farm, growing rice by the Yangtze River and millet near the Yellow River. They made pottery, built villages, and created early symbols that may have been the start of writing. This period, called the Neolithic Age, brought big changes as people learned to grow food and live together in larger groups.

Ancient China

See also: Outline of ancient China

Further information: Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors

Chinese historians often thought that one dynasty would follow another, but early China was much more complicated. The Xia and Shang dynasties may have existed at the same time, just like the early Zhou dynasty did alongside the Shang. This complexity shows how China was sometimes divided into many different states.

The earliest period considered historical was the time of wise leaders like Yao, Shun, and Yu. During this time, leaders passed power to each other. Yao gave his position to Shun, who then passed it to Yu, starting the Xia dynasty.

Main article: Xia dynasty

The Xia dynasty (around 2070 to 1600 BC) is the first of the three early dynasties. Some scholars think it might be mythical, but in China, it is linked to the Erlitou site from 1900 to 1500 BC. Though no writing was found there, Erlitou shows signs of early bronze use and organized society.

Main article: Shang dynasty

Further information: Bronze Age § China, Chinese ritual bronzes, and Predynastic Shang

The Shang dynasty (around 1600 to 1046 BC) is well-supported by evidence like oracle bones and bronzes. Important findings come from Erligang and Yinxu near modern Zhengzhou and Anyang. At Anyang, archaeologists found the earliest Chinese writing on animal bones used for divinations.

Main articles: Zhou dynasty and Western Zhou

Further information: Iron Age China and Predynastic Zhou

The Zhou dynasty lasted from 1046 BC to 256 BC, the longest in Chinese history. It began when King Wu defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye. The Zhou rulers used the idea of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule, believing that natural disasters or neglect of the people meant they had lost this divine right to govern.

Main article: Spring and Autumn period

During the Spring and Autumn period (722 to 476 BC), the Zhou kings lost much of their power. Many smaller states fought each other, and some grew powerful enough to challenge the Zhou. This time saw the rise of famous thinkers like Laozi, Confucius, and Sun Tzu.

Main article: Warring States period

The Warring States period (476 to 221 BC) followed, with seven large states battling for control. The state of Qin eventually defeated the others. Under Ying Zheng, Qin unified China and became its first emperor, Qin Shi Huang.

Imperial China

See also: Chinese Empire and Political systems of Imperial China

Early imperial China

Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)

Main article: Qin dynasty

Ying Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC marked the first time China was unified as a true empire. Zheng declared himself Shi Huangdi, meaning "First Emperor," a title used by rulers after him. The empire was governed as a centralized bureaucracy, dividing the land into smaller regions for better control.

The Qin dynasty focused on strong central rule and strict laws. They standardized weights, measures, writing, and currency. They built extensive roads and began construction of the Great Wall of China. However, after Qin Shi Huang's death, the dynasty quickly fell apart and was replaced by the Han dynasty.

Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220)

Main article: Han dynasty

Further information: History of the Han dynasty

The Han dynasty brought long periods of stability and growth. Under emperors like Wu, the empire expanded its borders and developed trade routes like the Silk Road. Confucianism became the official philosophy, shaping Chinese culture for centuries.

The Han dynasty saw advances in art, science, and technology. They created new tools, built large cities, and explored new lands. After Emperor Wu, the dynasty began to weaken due to economic strains and internal conflicts, eventually leading to its end.

Xin dynasty

Main article: Xin dynasty

In AD 9, Wang Mang took power and started the Xin dynasty, promising reforms. However, his changes faced resistance, and natural disasters worsened problems. Wang Mang was overthrown by peasants in AD 23, ending the Xin dynasty.

Eastern Han

Emperor Guangwu restored the Han dynasty in AD 25, moving the capital to Luoyang. This period saw new inventions like papermaking and renewed connections with distant lands. The dynasty remained strong until internal struggles and invasions led to its decline.

Six Dynasties

Three Kingdoms (AD 220–280)

Main article: Three Kingdoms

After the Han dynasty fell, China split into three states: Wei, Shu, and Wu. This period, known as the Three Kingdoms, was marked by warfare and political division. The famous novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms tells many stories from this time.

Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)

Main article: Jin dynasty (266–420)

Further information: History of the Jin dynasty (266–420)

The Jin dynasty briefly reunited China but faced internal conflicts and rebellions. Eventually, the empire split again, leading to the period of the Sixteen Kingdoms.

Sixteen Kingdoms (AD 304–439)

Northern China broke into many small states ruled by non-Han peoples. This time was full of war and unrest, pushing many Han Chinese people to move south.

Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)

From the 5th to the 6th century, China was divided between northern and southern dynasties. The south preserved Han culture while the north saw new influences from ruling groups. Buddhism and Taoism grew more widespread during this time.

Mid-imperial China

Sui dynasty (581–618)

Main article: Sui dynasty

The Sui dynasty reunited China after centuries of division. They built the Grand Canal to connect different parts of the empire and made many changes to government and society. However, costly wars and projects led to unrest and the dynasty's fall.

Tang dynasty (618–907)

Main article: Tang dynasty

See also: Wu Zhou

The Tang dynasty is remembered as a golden age of culture, trade, and innovation. Chang'an, the capital, was one of the world's largest cities. The dynasty supported the arts, built temples, and expanded trade routes. Despite later problems, the Tang period is famous for its poetry, art, and advances in science.

Late imperial China

Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960–1279)

Main articles: Song dynasty, Liao dynasty, Western Xia, and Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

Further information: History of the Song dynasty

See also: Dali Kingdom and Qara Khitai

In 960, the Song dynasty began and reunified most of China. Though faced with threats from neighboring empires, the Song period is known for its advances in technology, culture, and economy. Innovations like paper money and new inventions showed a thriving society.

Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)

Main article: Yuan dynasty

Further information: History of the Yuan dynasty

See also: Mongol Empire and Northern Yuan

The Yuan dynasty was established by Kublai Khan of the Mongol Empire. The Mongols ruled all of China and connected it with Central Asia and Europe through trade routes. Though they brought new cultures, their rule faced challenges and ended when a new dynasty took over.

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

Main article: Ming dynasty

Further information: History of the Ming dynasty

See also: Southern Ming

The Ming dynasty brought stability after the fall of the Yuan. They built parts of the Great Wall still seen today and explored new lands with voyages led by Zheng He. Later, the dynasty faced invasions and internal problems, leading to its end.

Qing dynasty (1644–1912)

Main article: Qing dynasty

Further information: History of the Qing dynasty

See also: Later Jin (1616–1636), High Qing era, Century of humiliation, and Self-Strengthening Movement

The Qing dynasty, ruled by the Manchus, was the last imperial dynasty. They expanded China's borders and brought periods of prosperity. However, faced with internal rebellions and pressure from Western powers, the dynasty eventually collapsed, leading to the establishment of the Republic of China.

Modern period

Republic of China (since 1912)

Main articles: 1911 Revolution, History of the Republic of China, Republic of China (1912–1949), Beiyang government, and Nationalist government

See also: History of Taiwan, History of Taiwan (1945–present), and Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan

The provisional government of the Republic of China was formed in Nanjing on 12 March 1912. Sun Yat-sen became President of the Republic of China, but he turned power over to Yuan Shikai, who commanded the New Army. In December 1912 to February 1913 elections were held nation-wide for each provincial assembly, which chose their legal delegates for the first National Assembly of the republic. The Kuomintang emerged as the formal political party that replaced the revolutionary organization Tongmenghui, and at these elections it won the largest share of seats in both houses of the National Assembly and in some provincial assemblies.

After Yuan Shikai's death, Li Yuanhong became the President and Duan Qirui became the Premier. The Provisional Constitution was reinstated and the parliament convened. In 1919, the May Fourth Movement began as a response to the pro-Japanese terms imposed on China by the Treaty of Versailles following World War I. It quickly became a nationwide protest movement. The protests were a moral success as the cabinet fell and China refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which had awarded German holdings of Shandong to Japan.

In the 1920s Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in Guangzhou and set out to unite the fragmented nation. He welcomed assistance from the Soviet Union and entered into an alliance with the fledgling Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai-shek, seized control of the Nationalist Party (KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule. During the long struggle between the Nationalists and the Communists, Japan invaded parts of China, drawing both parties into a temporary alliance against the Japanese.

People's Republic of China (since 1949)

Main articles: History of the People's Republic of China and China

See also: Proclamation of the People's Republic of China

Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the KMT pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to Taipei and maintaining control only over a few islands. The CCP was left in control of mainland China. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China.

The PRC was shaped by a series of campaigns and five-year plans. In 1972, Mao and Zhou Enlai met U.S. president Richard Nixon in Beijing to establish relations with the US. In the same year, the PRC was admitted to the United Nations in place of the Republic of China, with permanent membership of the Security Council.

Following Mao's death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping emerged as the leader and led the country to reform and opening up. The CCP loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and opened up free market areas, marking China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy. The PRC joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.

Since 2017, the Chinese government has faced international criticism for its treatment of ethnic minorities, including the Uyghurs. The coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which causes the disease COVID-19, was first detected in Wuhan, Hubei in 2019 and led to a global pandemic.