Colonialism

Colonialism is the practice where one group takes control of another land and its people to benefit themselves. This control is often based on the idea that the ruling group is better or more advanced. The rulers, coming from a place called a metropole, set up separate areas known as colonies where they make all the important decisions.

This way of ruling often treats the local people and their land as less important. It can lead to big changes in how people live, work, and see themselves. Sometimes, new settlers move into these lands and try to replace the original Indigenous peoples. Sadly, this has sometimes led to very harmful outcomes for these communities.

European countries did this a lot from the 1500s until the middle of the 1900s. At its peak, almost all of the world was controlled by a few European colonial empires. After World War II, many of these colonies gained their independence, but the effects of colonialism still influence the world today, affecting things like economies and governments. Some people now talk about neocolonialism, where old colonial ways still exist in hidden forms.

Etymology

The word "colonialism" comes from a Latin word called colonia. Long ago, the Romans used this word to describe a new city or settlement that was built by Roman citizens. This idea of a colonia comes from another Latin word, colonus, which means "farmer". Even deeper, it roots in the word colere, meaning "to cultivate" or "to till the soil".

Definitions

Colonialism is when a powerful country takes control of another land and its people to use their resources and gain more power. This practice often involves treating the local people unfairly and believing they are better than others.

Different dictionaries and experts have slightly different ways of describing colonialism, but they all agree it involves one country controlling another. Some say it is about taking over land and making decisions for the local people without their input. Others point out that colonialism often includes treating the local culture and people with little respect.

Types of colonialism

Modern studies of colonialism group it into four main types: settler colonialism, exploitation colonialism, surrogate colonialism, and internal colonialism. Some historians also talk about national and trade forms of colonialism.

• Settler colonialism happens when many people move to a new place to live, often for religious, political, or economic reasons. The goal is to replace the people already living there with the new settlers. Countries like Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, and the United States grew because of this type of colonialism.
• Exploitation colonialism uses fewer settlers and focuses on taking natural resources or using local workers for the benefit of the country doing the colonizing. This was common when European countries colonized parts of Africa and Asia.
• Surrogate colonialism is when a colonial power supports a settlement project, but most of the settlers are not from the same group as the rulers. Examples include Mandatory Palestine and the Colony of Liberia.
• Internal colonialism describes uneven power within a country, where some areas are controlled and used by others, even after independence.

National colonialism mixes elements of settler and internal colonialism, aiming to change the culture and politics of the colonized people to match the colonizers. Taiwan under strict rule is an example. Trade colonialism supports merchants by forcing open trade with other countries, like during the Opium Wars and when Japan was opened to Western powers.

History

Main articles: History of colonialism, List of colonies, and Chronology of Western colonialism

Antiquity

Colonialism has a long history, starting as early as ancient times with the ancient Egyptians. Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans set up settlements in many places. The Phoenicians were good traders and spread their culture across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC. Later, the Persian Empire and Greek city-states did the same. The Romans followed, creating settlements called coloniae in many areas.

Medieval

In the 9th century, Vikings such as Leif Erikson set up colonies in places like Britain, Ireland, Iceland, and even North America. During this time, other groups like the Venetians, Genovese, and Amalfians also began creating settlements in the Mediterranean. European Crusaders set up areas they controlled in places like the Levant and the Baltic littoral. Venice grew its influence in Dalmatia after the Fourth Crusade in 1204.

Modern

Modern colonialism began with the Spanish conquest of the Canary Islands. After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, new sea routes discovered by Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator helped start the Age of Discovery. The Crown of Castile reached the Americas in 1492 and set up trading spots or took over large areas. The Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 divided these new lands between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire.

The 17th century saw the rise of the Dutch Empire, French colonial empire, and English overseas possessions, which later became the British Empire. This century also included the Danish overseas colonies and Swedish overseas colonies.

A wave of wanting to be independent began with the American Revolutionary War from 1775 to 1783. The Spanish Empire mostly ended in the Americas after the Spanish American wars of independence from 1808 to 1833. New colonies were set up later, like those in the German colonial empire and Belgian colonial empire. After the French Revolution, European writers began to show support for people and groups who were treated unfairly.

The Habsburg monarchy, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire grew by taking over nearby lands instead of faraway places, though the Russian colonization of North America happened too. The Empire of Brazil tried to control more of South America. The United States gained lands after the 1898 Spanish–American War.

The Japanese colonial empire started in the mid-19th century by taking over Hokkaido and its Ainu people, then moved to the Ryukyu Islands. After the Meiji Restoration, Japan made more formal plans for colonies, aiming to get resources for its own growth.

In the late 19th century, many European countries got involved in taking over Africa.

20th century

At the start of World War I, about 560 million people lived in colonies, with most in British possessions. The war caused tensions and led some colonies to fight for independence. Germany lost its colonies, which were divided among the winning countries.

World War I

The First World War involved European powers and their colonies. The war caused higher demands on colonies, leading to some uprisings. Germany was defeated partly because it couldn’t get supplies from its colonies due to blockades. The winning countries divided Germany’s colonies.

Interwar years

During the years between World War I and World War II, feelings against colonialism grew. Ireland became independent from the UK. Turkey became independent after the Ottoman Empire ended. The first Pan-African Congress happened in Paris in 1919. The Soviet Union said it was against colonialism and helped groups fighting for independence.

Even with these changes, colonial powers kept control of their colonies. Any resistance was met with harsh actions. South Africa, started by Dutch and later English settlers, became independent but later created unfair laws. Japan took control of Manchuria from China and set up a new state there. The Soviet Union continued its past ways in some areas. Settlers continued to move into places like Palestine.

Conditions for many people in colonies got worse. Settler colonialism expanded in places like Manchuria, Kenya, and Algeria. Colonial powers mixed different ways of controlling people, leading to more violence.

World War II

Many see World War II as an attempt by Nazi Germany and its allies to control all of Europe. Plans were made to move many people from Eastern Europe to make space for German settlers. This included taking land from millions of people.

Italy tried to increase its control in Libya and Ethiopia, where it treated local people harshly. Japan took control of European colonies in Southeast Asia to get resources.

Post-WWII decolonization

After World War II, many colonies gained independence quickly. The United Nations supported this in its 1945 charter and in 1960 with a declaration supporting independence for colonial countries.

The term "neocolonialism" started being used after World War II to describe how countries kept control of former colonies through economic means instead of direct rule.

Contemporary

Some see current actions by countries like Russia and China as similar to colonialism. Some also view certain movements as modern forms of colonialism.

Impact

Main article: Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization § Colonial actions and their impacts

The effects of colonialism were wide-ranging and long-lasting. These included the spread of diseases that led to many deaths, changes in social structures, economic shifts, and the introduction of new cultures and languages. Indigenous peoples often lost their traditional ways of life, and new systems of government and economy were put in place.

Colonial powers also brought changes to the lands they controlled. They built new cities and roads, introduced new crops, and changed how people lived and worked. These changes sometimes helped some groups but made life harder for others. Over time, many colonized peoples fought for their independence and worked to rebuild their societies in new ways.

Geography

Further information: List of colonies

Settlers helped connect local people with faraway rulers, filling the gaps between them in terms of place, ideas, and trade. Geography and tools like cartography, shipbuilding, navigation, mining, and farming were very important for European expansion. Knowing the Earth and having useful skills gave colonizers power.

Some thinkers say that building empires was mainly about geography. Old ideas claimed some parts of the world were less developed, which helped justify taking over lands. Some geographers even said that colder climates made people stronger and smarter than those in warmer areas.

Maps were also very important in taking over lands. They gave useful information in a clear way, helping Europeans explore and control places like West Africa. Map-making wasn’t always fair. Maps made by non-Europeans were often seen as wrong. European map-makers followed rules that put their own people in the center, showing their viewpoint.

Unexplored areas were often shown as empty spaces on maps. This made colonial powers race to discover and claim these lands. Maps were used to remove the meaning of indigenous lands and place European names and borders on them, preparing these areas for colonization.

Ocean and space

Further information: Ocean colonization and Space colonization

With new technology for the deep sea and outer space, people have started thinking about colonizing the seabed and the Moon, which could be a new kind of colonialism away from Earth.

Perspectives

Marxism

Marxism sees colonialism as a way that capitalism works, pushing people to use resources and change societies for profit. Thinkers like Marx and Lenin believed that colonialism helps rich countries grow by taking from poorer ones. They thought it created unfair economies and made people lose their power.

Liberalism and capitalism

Some thinkers, like Adam Smith, were against colonialism because they believed it went against fair trade and freedom. They thought letting colonies go would help everyone in the long run.

Race and gender

During colonial times, leaders from powerful countries often believed they were better than others because of their race or gender. They used old ideas and unfair studies to support these beliefs. Women and people from different races were treated unfairly and studied in ways that were not right.

Othering

Colonial powers often saw the people and places they wanted to control as "different" or "not normal." This helped them justify taking over lands and treating people unfairly. This way of thinking created a big divide between cultures.

Post-colonialism

After colonialism ended, many writers and thinkers looked back at its effects. They talked about how it shaped societies and cultures. Books like Orientalism by Edward Saïd helped people understand these ideas better. Today, many people in former colonies write stories that show life from different points of view.