Golden Horde

The Golden Horde was a large empire created by the Mongols in the 13th century. It began as part of the huge Mongol Empire but became its own independent state after the empire split in 1259. It was also called the Kipchak Khanate and included lands that were once part of the Cuman–Kipchak confederation.

The Golden Horde grew very big under leaders like Batu Khan, who started the Blue Horde. Its strongest time was during the rule of Özbeg Khan, who chose Islam as the empire's religion. At its peak, the Golden Horde stretched from Siberia and Central Asia all the way to Eastern Europe, reaching from the Urals to the Danube River.

Later, the Golden Horde faced tough times with inner fights and outside attacks. After being attacked by Timur, the empire split into smaller parts. By the 15th century, it was weakening, and other states like Moscow began to break free from its rule. The last parts of the Golden Horde, such as the Crimean Khanate and the Kazakh Khanate, lasted until they were taken over by Russia much later.

Name

Further information: Wings of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde called itself Ulugh Ulus, meaning "Great State." Over time, this name became tied to a smaller area along the Volga River called the Great Horde. After this area broke apart in 1502, the name was taken by the nearby Crimean Khanate.

The name "Golden Horde" comes from the Russian term Zolotaya Orda. This Russian name may have been inspired by the golden tents used by leaders like Batu Khan or Özbeg Khan, or by the wealth of the leaders. The word "horde" in English comes from the Mongols' mobile camps, called ordo.

Early writers called the area the Ulus of Jochi, after a son of Genghis Khan, or the Qipchaq Steppe. It wasn’t until the 1500s that Russian writers began using the term "Golden Horde" to describe this part of the old Mongol Empire.

Mongol origins (c. 1225 – 1241)

Main articles: Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria, Mongol invasion of Europe, Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', and Mongol Empire

Genghis Khan shared the Mongol Empire among his four sons. Jochi received lands around the Irtysh River. Though he died early, his son Batu Khan became important. Together with the great general Subutai, Batu led many battles. They moved west, conquering many lands including Volga Bulgaria, Russian principalities, and parts of Hungary.

After these victories, Batu settled in a new place along the Volga River. This spot was good for trade and safety. Though Mongolian was used at first, other languages like Cuman also became important over time.

Golden Age

The Golden Horde was a large state that began as part of the Mongol Empire and later became independent. It was established in the 13th century in the area known today as Russia and Kazakhstan. Originally, it was called the Ulus of Jochi, named after Jochi, a son of Genghis Khan.

During its early years, the Golden Horde was ruled by leaders chosen from the Mongol royal family. One of these leaders, Batu Khan, expanded the empire and set up systems to govern the many lands under his control. Under his rule, leaders from nearby regions, such as Russia, acknowledged his authority.

Later rulers of the Golden Horde continued to shape the region. Some, like Berke, converted to Islam and influenced the culture and laws of the empire. The Golden Horde also had periods of conflict with neighboring states, such as the Ilkhanate in Persia, which sometimes led to battles and changes in leadership.

Overall, the Golden Horde was an important part of the Mongol Empire and played a key role in the history of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Its leaders governed a vast area and left a lasting impact on the cultures and societies around them.

Batu Khan (1242–1256)

When Batu Khan was asked to help choose the next leader of the Mongol Empire, he chose not to attend and stayed near the Volga River instead. During his time as ruler, he focused on building a strong government rather than launching new military campaigns.

Many leaders from the Russian lands, such as Yaroslav II of Vladimir and Daniel of Galicia, recognized Batu’s authority. Batu even gave special titles to some Russian princes, like Alexander Nevsky, who became important figures in their own regions.

Berke (1257–1266)

After Batu Khan’s death, his son Sartaq Khan took over but passed away soon after. Then, Berke, Batu’s younger brother, became the new ruler. Berke converted to Islam and began to rule in ways that reflected Islamic traditions.

Berke faced challenges from other Mongol leaders, especially during a conflict known as the Toluid Civil War. Despite these difficulties, he worked to maintain the Golden Horde’s influence in the regions around it.

Mengu-Timur (1266–1280)

Mengu-Timur followed Berke as ruler of the Golden Horde. He made several important decisions, including issuing a decree that exempted Russian clergy from taxes and granting trading rights to merchants from Genoa and Venice in certain ports.

Mengu-Timur also dealt with conflicts in nearby areas, such as supporting leaders in Bulgaria and interacting with the Byzantine Empire. His reign helped to stabilize the Golden Horde and maintain its connections with other states.

Töde Möngke (1280–1287)

Töde Möngke took over after Mengu-Timur and continued to rule the Golden Horde. During his time, another powerful figure named Nogai Khan grew very influential and began to act almost independently.

Töde Möngke eventually converted to Islam but was known to care mainly for religious leaders. His reign saw invasions into places like Hungary, though these campaigns had mixed success.

Talabuga (1287–1291)

Talabuga became ruler after Töde Möngke and led attacks into regions such as Poland and Ruthenia. However, his relationship with Nogai Khan became strained, and eventually, Talabuga was killed by Nogai’s forces.

Toqta–Nogai Conflict (1291–1299)

After Talabuga’s death, Toqta became the new ruler. He faced opposition from Nogai Khan, leading to battles between their forces. Eventually, Toqta defeated Nogai, ending his challenge to Toqta’s rule.

General peace (1299–1312)

Under Toqta’s leadership, the Golden Horde experienced a period of relative peace and stability. He worked to improve relations with neighboring states and managed internal conflicts among Russian princes.

Toqta also faced issues with trade, especially after arresting Italian merchants in Sarai and attacking the port city of Caffa. These actions were linked to disputes over trade practices and the treatment of his people.

Islamization

Öz Beg Khan (1313–1341)

After Öz Beg Khan became leader in 1313, he chose Islam as the state religion. He built a big mosque in the city of Solkhat in the Crimea in 1314 and stopped people from following Buddhism and Shamanism. By 1315, Öz Beg had made Islam the main religion of the Golden Horde. He kept things peaceful and trade routes open. When Ibn Battuta visited Sarai in 1333, he described it as a lovely city with wide streets and busy markets. Different groups, like Mongols, Alans, Kypchaks, Circassians, Russians, and Greeks, all had their own areas, and merchants had a special part of the city just for them.

Öz Beg kept good ties with friends and family in faraway places. He sent messages and gifts to leaders he respected. He also worked with nearby countries, sometimes sending soldiers to help them in battles. His armies traveled to places like Thrace to support allies and sometimes fought against other groups. He also had influence over leaders in Russia, helping some become more powerful while keeping others in check.

With help from Öz Beg, a leader named Mikhail Yaroslavich won a battle in a place called Novgorod in 1316. But later, another leader named Yury, who had won favor from Öz Beg, brought soldiers and took control. After some fighting and changes in leadership, the balance shifted again. In 1327, a group of people in Tver rebelled against Mongol leaders, leading to conflict. Öz Beg supported Moscow as the main Russian state, which helped Moscow grow stronger and more important.

The Mongols had weakened some areas like Galicia and Volhynia. After a leader named Yuri I died, things became unstable. Later leaders tried to keep control, but faced challenges from nearby groups. Öz Beg sent soldiers to protect these areas from outside threats. He also allowed different groups, like the Franciscans and Genoese, to live and trade in his lands, though there were some conflicts.

Jani Beg (1342–1357)

Öz Beg’s son Tini Beg ruled for a short time from 1341 to 1342 before his brother, Jani Beg, took over.

In 1344, Jani Beg tried to take a city from some traders but failed. In 1347, he made a trade deal with another group. The Black Death in the 1340s caused many problems for the Golden Horde. The disease spread through many cities, killing many people and hurting the economy. By the 1350s, trade routes began to fail.

Jani Beg stopped trying to control faraway lands and focused on supporting Moscow instead of Lithuania and Poland. He sent soldiers to help in battles against these groups. In 1352, his forces attacked Polish lands. The Polish king agreed to pay taxes to avoid more fights. Jani Beg also took control of some other areas, but was later killed by his own son, Berdi Beg. After this, the Golden Horde lost some of the lands it had gained.

Decline

Great Troubles (1359–1381)

Main article: Great Troubles

In 1359, Berdi Beg was killed by his brother Qulpa during a coup. Qulpa’s sons had Slavic names, which upset the Muslim people of the Golden Horde. In 1360, Nawruz Beg, Qulpa’s brother, revolted and killed Qulpa and his sons. In 1361, a descendant of Shiban took the throne after being invited by some leaders. There was ongoing conflict and power struggles during this time.

The Golden Horde split into parts controlled by different leaders. Meanwhile, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania attacked areas under the Golden Horde’s influence and took over Kiev and Podolia in 1363. A strong Mongol leader named Mamai tried to support one of the claimants but faced many challenges, including battles against Russian forces.

Tokhtamysh (1381–1395)

See also: Tokhtamysh–Timur war

Tokhtamysh defeated Mamai in 1381 and tried to bring the Golden Horde back to its former strength. He sought to resume relationships with Russian states but faced resistance. He laid siege to Moscow, which surrendered after a few days. Later, most Russian princes recognized his authority again. He also defeated a Lithuanian army and gained some territory from Lithuania.

Tokhtamysh then expanded into Azerbaijan and sought alliances with other regions. However, he faced strong opposition from Timur, leading to several battles. Despite some successes, Tokhtamysh was eventually defeated badly by Timur’s forces, which weakened the Golden Horde significantly.

Edigu (1395–1419)

Temür Qutlugh became Khan while Edigu shared power. Tokhtamysh sought help from Lithuania to regain control but was defeated. Edigu focused on strengthening the Golden Horde and made some changes to trade policies. He faced rebellions and conflicts with other leaders but managed to hold onto much of the territory until his death in 1419.

Disintegration and succession

Khanate of Sibir (1405)

The Khanate of Sibir began in 1405 under a ruler named Taibuga, who started his rule in a place called Chimgi-Tura. After Taibuga died in 1428, another leader named Abu'l-Khayr Khan took over. But when Abu'l-Khayr Khan died in 1468, the khanate split into two parts. One part was led by a leader named Ibak Khan in Chimgi-Tura, and the other part was led by a leader named Muhammad in a place called Sibir, which is where the name of the khanate comes from.

Uzbek Khanate (1428)

By 1419, the Golden Horde was no longer a strong power. A leader named Ulugh Muhammad claimed to be the main ruler, but he only controlled a small area near the Volga River. Other leaders also tried to take control. In 1422, a leader named Barak Khan attacked the rulers in the west. Over the next few years, many leaders fought for power. Eventually, Abu'l-Khayr Khan founded what became known as the Uzbek Khanate.

Nogai Horde (1440s)

In the 1440s, a leader named Musa bin Waqqas, who was a descendant of Edigu, began ruling independently in a place called Saray-Jük. He was part of what is known as the Nogai Horde.

Khanate of Kazan (1445)

Ulugh Muhammad took control of a place called Crimea after driving away another leader. During this time, a leader named Hacı I Giray asked for help from a ruler in Lithuania. Ulugh Muhammad later lost his position to another leader named Sayid Ahmad I. Ulugh Muhammad moved to a town called Belyov, where he fought against Moscow. After several battles, Ulugh Muhammad was killed by his son Mäxmüd, who then founded the Khanate of Kazan in 1445. Mäxmüd tried to attack Moscow but was unsuccessful.

Crimean Khanate (1449)

In 1449, Hacı I Giray took control of Crimea and founded the Crimean Khanate. The leaders of this new khanate saw themselves as continuing the legacy of the Golden Horde.

Qasim Khanate (1452)

One of Ulugh Muhammad's sons, Qasim Khan, moved to Moscow, where he was given land to rule. This area became known as the Qasim Khanate.

Kazakh Khanate (1458s–1470)

In 1458, two leaders named Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan led a large group of people to a new area near the Chu River. After the death of their leader Abu'l-Khayr Khan in 1467, they formed what became known as the Kazakh Khanate.

Great Horde (1430s–1502)

Main article: Great Horde

In 1435, a leader named Küchük Muhammad took over after driving out another ruler. He faced many challenges, including battles against Russian forces. After Küchük Muhammad died, his son Mahmud bin Küchük took over, and the Golden Horde became known as the Great Horde. Mahmud was followed by his brother Ahmed Khan bin Küchük. Ahmed tried to bring back the old power of the Golden Horde by attacking many areas, including Russia. In 1480, there was a big standoff between Ahmed's forces and the Russian army at the Ugra River. Ahmed decided to leave, which marked the end of the Golden Horde's control over Russian lands. Ahmed was later killed, and his sons could not keep the Great Horde together.

Astrakhan Khanate (1466)

After 1466, descendants of Mahmud bin Küchük began ruling in a place called Astrakhan, forming what is known as the Astrakhan Khanate.

Crimean conquest of the Great Horde

In the early 1500s, the Crimean Khanate, which had become an ally of the Ottoman Empire, attacked and destroyed what was left of the Great Horde. They sacked the city of New Sarai in 1502, ending the Great Horde for good. The Crimean leaders then claimed they were the true successors of the Golden Horde.

Tributaries

The Golden Horde ruled many lands and peoples. Groups like the Alans, Armenians, Bulgarians, Circassians, Greeks, Crimean Goths, Georgians, Ruthenians (who were ancestors of today’s Belarusians and Ukrainians), Russians (including groups like the Novgorodians and Suzdalians), and Vlachs were all under its control. The Golden Horde wanted soldiers for its army and taxes from these people. They often did not rule directly but let local leaders govern while collecting taxes and soldiers.

Russian leaders had to learn the customs of the Mongol rulers. They received special permits from the Mongol khans to rule. Over time, some Russian princes started collecting taxes themselves. The Russian Orthodox Church was treated well; they paid no taxes and were allowed to grow. The Church even prayed for the khans, and in return, the khans protected the Church. This helped the Church become stronger in Russia.

As time passed, the Golden Horde weakened. Russian leaders no longer needed to pay taxes to the Mongols. By the late 1400s, the Golden Horde’s power ended, and Russia became fully independent.

Influence

Russian nobles had to adapt to Mongol ways, but ordinary people had less contact with them. Russian writers often mentioned Mongol leaders and events, showing they knew a lot about them. In some areas, Mongols replaced local leaders with their own, but in others, local princes stayed in power but had to work with Mongol officials who collected taxes and soldiers.

The Russian nobility had to get permission from the Mongol khan to rule. A special representative from the khan lived in each capital city to watch over things. Over time, Russian princes started collecting taxes themselves, and by the 1300s, they no longer needed to report to Mongol officials directly. The main Russian leader, the grand prince of Vladimir, took charge of collecting taxes.

Even though Russian nobles had to follow Mongol ways, they did not fully adopt Mongol culture. Some Russian soldiers wore Mongol-style clothes and used Mongol weapons. There were a few marriages between Russian nobles and Mongol princesses, but these became rare after the Mongols turned to a different religion. Later, some Mongols moved to Russia, converted to Christianity, and joined Russian society.

Loss of hegemony

The Golden Horde began to weaken after the death of a leader in 1359, leading to years of unrest. By the late 1300s, Russian lands like Moscow had broken free from Mongol control for short periods. Battles such as the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 showed that Russia could defeat the Mongols. In 1480, a standoff between the forces of Moscow and the Golden Horde ended without a fight, marking the end of Mongol rule over Russia. By 1502, the Golden Horde had been absorbed into another state, the Crimean Khanate.

Trade

The Golden Horde traded with many places. The city of Sarai traded often with Italian merchants from places like Genoa near the Black Sea. Egypt was also a close trading partner.

Because of wars and battles, the Golden Horde sometimes had to change its trade routes. They built new towns for trade along different paths. This trade included many goods, and sometimes even people were traded. Later, big changes happened that moved trade routes again.

Geography and society

Genghis Khan gave four Mongol groups to Jochi, and by the 1300s, leaders from many clans held important jobs in the Golden Horde. The people of the Golden Horde were mostly Turks and Mongols who later followed Islam. There were also smaller groups like Finno-Ugric peoples, Sarmato-Scythians, Slavs, and people from the Caucasus. The main groups were Kipchaks, Cumans, Volga Bulgars, and Khwarezmians. The leaders were mostly Tatar, a name Russians and Europeans used for them. Most people spoke the Kypchak language, which later became the basis for regional languages.

The Golden Horde was ruled from cities like Sarai Batu and Sarai Berke, stretching from the Volga River and the Carpathian Mountains to the Danube River. Another part was ruled from near the Ural River to Lake Balkhash. There were also Chinese communities in Russian cities like Novgorod, Tver, and Moscow. The leaders of the Golden Horde came from four Mongol clans. The main ruler, called the Khan, was chosen from Batu Khan's family. There were also ministers and local leaders who collected taxes and kept order. The capital city, Sarai, grew into a big, busy place with many markets, mosques, and homes. It was described by travelers as a beautiful and lively city.

Genetics

A 2018 study looked at the remains of two men from around 1300 in Kazakhstan. One man was from East Asia and had certain genetic markers, while the other was from Europe and had different markers. This shows that people from many backgrounds may have mixed together in the Golden Horde.

Anthropological studies show that modern Kazakhs are very similar to the nomads of the Golden Horde, especially those from the Lower Volga. Other groups like Tatars, Uzbeks, and Chuvash are more related to the urban people of that time.

Coinage

The Golden Horde made coins during different times. Some coins were made by leaders like Talabuga around 1287–1291 AD and Jani Beg around 1342–1357 AD. Others were made by leaders such as Berdi Beg, Kildibeg, and Ordumelik in places like Azak and Sarai. There were also coins made in the name of Abdullah ibn Uzbeg and Dawlat Berdi in different years.