Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire in history. It began in present-day Mongolia in East Asia and grew to stretch from the Sea of Japan to Eastern Europe. At its height, it reached into Siberia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, the Iranian Plateau, the Levant, and even the Carpathian Mountains.

The empire formed when several nomadic tribes united under the leadership of Temüjin, known as Genghis Khan. He became the ruler of all Mongols in 1206. Under him and his descendants, the empire expanded quickly, sending out invading armies in all directions. This huge empire connected the East with the West, the Pacific with the Mediterranean, allowing many kinds of trade and ideas to move across Eurasia.

Over time, the empire split apart because of disagreements among Genghis Khan’s family about who should rule. After Möngke Khan died, his brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai Khan fought for power. Kublai won but the empire broke into four separate parts: the Golden Horde, the Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate, and the Yuan dynasty in China. Each of these parts went its own way, and by the 1300s and 1600s, they all faded away.

Name

The Mongol Empire is also called the "Mongolian Empire" or the "Mongol World Empire" in some English books.

The empire called itself the Nation of the Great Mongols in their own language.

After a war from 1260 to 1264 between Kublai Khan and his brother Ariq Böke, Kublai’s rule was limited to the eastern part of the empire, centered on China. On 18 December 1271, Kublai announced the empire’s new name, "Great Yuan," and started the Yuan dynasty. Some sources say the full Mongol name was Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus.

Background

Main article: Rise of Genghis Khan

The Mongols originated in the late tenth century, moving from eastern Manchuria to the Mongolian Plateau. By the 1100s, they were growing stronger, but faced challenges and losses.

One key figure was Yesugei, who had a son named Temüjin, later known as Genghis Khan. After Yesugei's death, Temüjin faced many difficulties but eventually formed important alliances. He worked with friends and allies to overcome enemies and unite the Mongol tribes under his leadership.

United Mongol Empire (1206–1260)

Early organization

At a meeting in 1206, a leader named Temüjin became the ruler of all Mongols. He created new rules and organized the people into groups of a thousand to make the empire stronger. He made laws to keep peace, such as stopping fights among Mongols and protecting trade. He also supported different religions and learning.

Push into Central Asia

Genghis Khan, as Temüjin was now called, fought with nearby kingdoms and prepared to pass the empire to his family. He believed in letting people practice their own religions.

Death of Genghis Khan and expansion under Ögedei (1227–1241)

Genghis Khan passed away in 1227, and his son Ögedei took over. Under Ögedei, the empire grew larger, reaching into places like Russia and China. Ögedei’s leaders captured many cities and made new rules for the empire. They built a new capital city called Karakorum.

Invasions of Kievan Rus' and China

Ögedei’s armies moved into Russia and captured many cities there. They also fought in China and parts of Persia. Despite winning many battles, there were also problems within the Mongol leaders.

Push into Central Europe

The Mongols continued to move into Europe, fighting in places like Poland and Hungary. But after Ögedei’s death in 1241, the attacks stopped because the Mongols needed to choose a new leader.

Post-Ögedei power struggles (1241–1251)

After Ögedei died, there were fights over who should be the next leader. Different family members claimed they should be in charge. Finally, a leader named Güyük was chosen, but he faced challenges from others who wanted power.

Rule of Möngke Khan (1251–1259)

Möngke became the new leader in 1251. He made changes to the government and tried to make life better for ordinary people. He also built new places for different religions to meet.

Administrative reforms

Möngke worked to make the government fairer and less expensive. He created new rules to help control money and taxes. He also sent his brothers to lead parts of the empire.

New invasions of the Middle East and Southern China

Möngke wanted to grow the empire even more. He sent armies to attack places in the Middle East and southern China. These attacks changed the history of many lands.

Death of Möngke Khan (1259)

Möngke led his army in southern China but died there in 1259. His death led to more arguments about who should be the next leader of the Mongol Empire.

Division of the empire

When the great leader Möngke of the Mongol Empire passed away, arguments over who should be the next ruler began. His brother Hulagu had to stop his military campaign and return home, which allowed their enemies to form an unusual truce against the Mongols.

Another brother, Kublai Khan, continued his own campaign in China. Meanwhile, their younger brother Ariq Böke claimed to be the new leader. This led to battles between Kublai and Ariq Böke’s forces.

Kublai’s forces won, and he became the new leader. He renamed the Mongol rule in China the Yuan dynasty and moved his capital to what is now Beijing. He worked to build schools, offices, and trade ports, and supported arts and science.

Kublai tried to expand the empire further but faced difficulties. His attempts to invade Japan failed, with important battles happening near Fukuoka. Despite family arguments, the empire remained strong in trade and commerce.

Competing entities

Main article: Division of the Mongol Empire

Major changes happened in the Mongol Empire in the late 1200s. Kublai Khan, who had conquered all of China and started the Yuan dynasty, died in 1294. He was followed by his grandson Temür Khan, who carried on Kublai's ways. During this time, the Toluid Civil War, the Berke–Hulegu war, and the Kaidu–Kublai war weakened the great khan's control, and the empire split into separate khanates: the Yuan dynasty and three western ones — the Golden Horde, the Chagatai Khanate, and the Ilkhanate. Only the Ilkhanate stayed loyal to the Yuan court, but it had its own struggles, especially with growing Islamic groups in the southwest.

After Kaidu died, the Chagatai ruler Duwa made a peace offer, and in 1304, all the khanates agreed to a peace treaty, accepting Temür Khan as their leader. This made the Yuan dynasty the top power, but each khanate kept developing on its own and acted as an independent country.

The years after were fairly peaceful, known as the Pax Mongolica, and trade and culture grew between Asia and Europe. The Yuan dynasty in China and the Ilkhanate in Persia worked together, helping trade flow between east and west. Innovations and ideas moved across the empire. Even the Pope John XXII heard about this peace from the eastern church.

Though the khanates kept talking to each other well into the 1300s, they acted as sovereign states and never joined forces in war again.

Military organization

Main article: Military of the Mongol Empire

The Mongol army was known for its simple but strong organization. It was built in groups of ten, then hundred, then thousand, and finally ten thousand soldiers. They were famous for their skilled horse riders who could shoot arrows while riding, but they also used soldiers with long spears and other weapons. The Mongols could attack strong cities by building big machines like trebuchets and catapults, often using local materials.

Mongol soldiers were trained to move quickly and could travel far even in very cold weather. They did not need long supply lines, which helped them move faster. Leaders kept in touch using messengers. Soldiers learned discipline during special hunts that helped them work together as a team. The Mongol army could fight on many fronts at once, and many men were part of the army.

Society

Main article: Society of the Mongol Empire

Religions

Main article: Religion in the Mongol Empire

When Genghis Khan ruled, many religions had followers among the Mongols, including Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, and Islam. Genghis Khan allowed all religions to be practiced freely. He followed shamanist beliefs himself, and he let religious leaders avoid taxes and public duties.

At first, there were not many special buildings for worship because the Mongols moved around a lot. Later, under Ögedei, they built places for Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist followers to meet. The main religions were Tengrism and Buddhism, though Ögedei's wife followed Christianity.

Over time, the different parts of the empire adopted the religions of the people they ruled. In China, under the Yuan dynasty, Buddhism and Shamanism were common. In the western parts, Islam became the main religion.

Arts and literature

See also: List of historical cities and towns of Mongolia and Mongolian literature

One of the oldest books in the Mongolian language is The Secret History of the Mongols, written after Genghis Khan died in 1227. It tells the story of Genghis Khan's life and family, from his early years to when he built the Mongol Empire and the time of his son Ögedei.

Another important book is Jami' al-tawarikh, or "Universal History." It was made in the early 1300s by order of the ruler Ghazan Khan. This book aimed to record the history of the whole world, showing the Mongols' place in it.

Mongol artists liked to paint pictures, especially of their horses. They also used a mix of tree sap and colored plant paints to fix writing, which might be one of the earliest examples of this kind of correction fluid.

Science

The Mongol Empire made advances in science because the rulers supported learning. Roger Bacon said the Mongols succeeded because they loved math. Astronomy was a special interest for the rulers. Ögedei Khan fixed an important astronomy tool in 1233 and 1236 and made a new calendar in 1234. He also built a temple for a wise man named Yelü Chucai.

Möngke Khan enjoyed solving hard math problems and wanted to build an astronomy center, but he died before it could be done. Instead, his brother Hulagu Khan helped build a famous astronomy center in Persia in 1259. There, scientists made new star charts and improved math.

Kublai Khan built many astronomy centers in China and collected important books, including one about shapes and numbers. Other scientists in China made big advances in math and medicine during his time.

Ghazan Khan, who could speak four languages, built an astronomy center in 1295. A scientist from Greece named Gregory Chioniades worked there and helped share ideas from the Islamic world to Europe, including a new way to measure the stars and a special math idea that later influenced how people thought about the solar system.

Mail system

Main article: Yam (route)

The Mongol Empire had a smart and fast mail system called the Yam. They set up special stations with fresh horses and food for messengers. A rider would travel about 40 kilometres (25 miles) before handing the message to the next rider, so news could travel very quickly. Riders could cover 200 kilometres (125 miles) in a single day—faster than any system for hundreds of years after.

The stations had houses to care for the riders. Anyone with a special sign called a paiza could stop there. Even important soldiers could use the Yam without a sign. Merchants, messengers, and travelers from many places used this system. When the ruler died, news reached soldiers far away in just 4 to 6 weeks thanks to the Yam.

Genghis Khan and his son Ögedei built many roads, including one through the Altai mountains. Ögedei made sure roads connected all parts of the empire.

Kublai Khan, who started the Yuan dynasty, built special mail routes for important people and also for everyone else. He had about 1,400 stations with thousands of horses, oxen, mules, carts, and boats to help messages travel. In cold northern areas, they even used dogsleds. Later rulers kept improving the mail system.

Silk Road

Main article: Silk Road

See also: Pax Mongolica and Black Death

When the Mongols united in 1206, they created peace that let trade routes grow across their huge empire. The Mongols liked helping merchants and trade. Genghis Khan encouraged foreign merchants even before he united the Mongols. Merchants shared information about other cultures, acted as diplomats, and traded goods because the Mongols did not make many things themselves.

The Mongol leaders gave money to merchants and sent them far away to trade. These merchants were safe as they traveled with the right papers. Good roads connected lands from the Mediterranean to China, making trade much easier and creating famous stories of travelers on the Silk Road.

Later Mongol leaders continued to help merchants. Merchants brought supplies to the palaces and got special benefits in return. After Genghis Khan, some leaders tried to stop unfair practices and made sure merchants paid taxes. When the Mongol Empire fell in the 1300s, the Silk Road changed. New groups took control of parts of the route, and China turned away from outside trade.

Legacy

See also: History of Mongolia

The Mongol Empire was the largest empire in history and had a big effect on many places. Some areas, like parts of Russia and China, stayed joined together even after the empire ended. The people who came from the Mongols mixed with local groups and changed their religions. For example, some became Buddhists, and others followed Islam.

The Mongols also helped in other ways. They created a new writing system that people in Mongolia still use today. During the time of the Mongol rule, Moscow grew stronger. Even though it was under Mongol control, Moscow’s leaders became powerful and later overthrew the Mongol rulers.

The Mongol Empire also helped Europe learn more about the world. Traders and ambassadors brought back new information, which helped explorers like Christopher Columbus.

Destruction

Main article: Destruction under the Mongol Empire

The conquests of Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire caused big changes in many places. Some areas lost many people, and the population of China dropped a lot during this time. Scholars think that different reasons, like war and disease, might have caused these changes. The Islamic world also faced big changes, with many people suffering from disease and hardship.