History of the Alps

The valleys of the Alps have been home to people since ancient times. Over many years, a special way of life grew there, known as the Alpine culture. This culture is closely tied to a practice called transhumance, where people and animals move between high mountain pastures in the summer and lower valleys in the winter.

Today, the Alps stretch across eight countries: France, Monaco, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany and Slovenia. In 1991, these countries joined together in the Alpine Convention to help protect and manage this beautiful shared region, which covers about 190,000 square kilometres.

Early history (before 1200)

The valleys of the Alps have been home to people for a very long time. Caves in the Appenzell Alps show that even Neanderthals lived there about 40,000 years ago. Later, modern humans arrived around 30,000 years ago.

During ancient times, people in the Alps moved their animals between high and low mountains each year, a practice known as transhumance. By the time of the Roman Empire, the Romans had built roads through the Alps, connecting different parts of their empire. This helped bring the people of the Alps closer to Roman culture. As the Roman Empire changed, new groups like the Alemanni and Slavs settled in the Alps, shaping the region's history.

Later Medieval to Early Modern Era (1200 to 1900)

The French historian Fernand Braudel described the Alps as a special place with many resources, good people, and many roads. People have lived in the Alps for a long time, starting in the Middle Ages. At first, people farmed and raised animals. Later, they raised more cattle than sheep. In some places, farming turned completely into raising cattle for faraway markets. Trade between different places also grew, especially through passes like the Brenner. In the western and central Alps, people could only use pack animals on the passes until around 1800.

The way countries formed in the Alps was shaped by big European conflicts, like the Italian wars from 1494 to 1559. During this time, the Alpine regions developed in different ways: some became more centralized under princes, some were run by local communities like in Switzerland, and others were controlled by powerful nobles in the eastern Alps.

Until the late 1800s, many Alpine valleys were still mainly used for farming and raising animals. As the population grew, people used the land more intensely, growing crops like corn and potatoes and making cheese. In the higher parts of the Alps, the short growing season made farming harder compared to the lower lands around them. In the western and central Alps, most farms were small, while in the eastern Alps, farms were bigger. People also moved to cities around the Alps, sometimes only for a short time. Cities grew slowly in the Alps themselves.

Central Alps

Further information: Old Swiss Confederacy and Highest Alemannic

In the Central Alps, an important event was the formation of the Swiss Confederacy from 1291 to 1516, especially in the mountain areas. The Grisons and the Valais later joined as full members in 1803 and 1815. The Gotthard Pass became very important after the Devil's Bridge was built around 1230. This made the valley of Uri a main route between Germany and Italy. A hospice was also built there for travelers.

In the 1400s, the Forest Cantons gained control of areas like Valle Leventina, Bellinzona, and Valle di Blenio.

Western Alps

Further information: County of Savoy and Duchy of Savoy

In the Western Alps, there was a long struggle for control between the lords of Savoy, the Dauphiné, and Provence. Over time, France took control of many areas, including parts of Nice and Piedmont. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) was a turning point, and by 1860, France controlled the western slopes of the Alps.

Eastern Alps

The Eastern Alps were part of the Frankish Empire since the 800s. For many years, the history of the Eastern Alps was shaped by the Habsburg family. They built a large empire, winning areas like Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tirol, and Vorarlberg. However, their control on the southern side of the Alps was slower and less successful. After World War I, there were big changes in the Eastern Alps following the end of Austria-Hungary.

Modern history (1900 to present)

Population

In recent times, we can estimate how many people lived in the Alpine region. Within the area defined by the Alpine Convention, there were about 3.1 million people in 1500, 5.8 million in 1800, 8.5 million in 1900, and 13.9 million in 2000.

Scholars in the 1500s, especially those living near the Alps, became more interested in mountain phenomena. They were curious about how the Earth was formed and how the Bible described these events. By the 1700s, people in Europe developed a strong love for nature and the Alps. A famous book called "Voyages dans les Alpes" (1779–1796) by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure described his climb up Mont Blanc in 1787. Another famous book, "Julie, ou la nouvelle Heloise" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, also helped make the Alps popular. These ideas led to growth in interest in the Alps as a place to visit, laying the groundwork for modern tourism. As Europe became more urban, the Alps stood out as a natural escape.

Economy

The economy also changed a lot. Farming became less important, and people started growing special crops in valleys and raising more cattle at higher altitudes. This shift happened because of industrialisation in Europe during the 1800s, which affected the Alps directly and indirectly. For example, iron manufacturing, which was big in earlier times, became limited due to high transportation costs and bigger business operations. However, new chances appeared in manufacturing because of electric power, a major innovation of the time. The Alps, with plenty of water and steep slopes, became perfect for making hydroelectric power. This led to many new factories in the area.

The biggest change, though, was in services, especially tourism. At first, people visited in the summer, and by around 1850, health resorts and spas began to grow. Later, tourism shifted to winter, especially after ski-lifts were introduced in the early 1900s. For a long time, travel through the Alps by roads and trade were important, but new railways and tunnels like the Semmering (1854), the Brenner (1867), the Fréjus/Mont-Cenis (1871), the Gotthard (1882), the Simplon (1906), and the Tauern (1909) created strong competition. In 2016, the 57 km long Gotthard Base Tunnel opened. Despite bringing new opportunities, these changes also had negative effects on the environment.

Milestones of railway transit across the Alps

[Brenner Pass Railway](/wiki/Brenner_Railway) (1867), maximum elevation: 1,371 m

[Fréjus Rail Tunnel](/wiki/Fréjus_Rail_Tunnel) (1871), maximum elevation: 1,338 m

[Gotthard Rail Tunnel](/wiki/Gotthard_Rail_Tunnel) (1882), maximum elevation: 1,151 m

[Simplon Tunnel](/wiki/Simplon_Tunnel) (1906), maximum elevation: 705 m

[Gotthard Base Tunnel](/wiki/Gotthard_Base_Tunnel) (2016), maximum elevation: 549 m

Political history

Like other parts of Europe, the Alpine region felt the effects of nation states forming, which created tensions between different groups and affected border areas. During World War I, the eastern Alps were a major area of conflict.

After World War II, the Alps entered a new phase. Regional identities became stronger, and a shared Alpine identity developed. A big step happened in 1991 with the signing of the Alpine Convention between all Alpine countries and the European Union. During the 1900s, the Alps became seen as clean and untouched places, free from unwanted city influences like pollution and noise.

Tourism and alpinism

Further information: Exploration of the High Alps and Tourism in Switzerland § History

The Alps became very interesting to people from Britain, partly because they had to cross them to reach the Mediterranean for the Grand Tour. As more people traveled and new sports were invented, the Alps became a place for training and adventure. The Alps offered climbers the right level of challenge they wanted.

These changes made Alpine tourism very important. It grew strongly from the mid-1800s and kept its importance despite ups and downs. Railway companies, guides, and travel agents all worked together to make the Alps a famous place to visit. By 1861, Thomas Cook included the Alps in his travel catalog, helping create an international tourism industry. This industry built railways, hotels, and other services like casinos and funiculars.

British tourists helped shape how people saw the Alps. A book by Leslie Stephen called the Alps “the Playground of Europe.” The book showed how popular the mountains were but also talked about disagreements between serious climbers and ordinary tourists. In the 1900s, the Alps became part of the world’s growing tourism, with many new places to visit. British people especially loved winter sports like skiing and skating, and this tradition continues today.

Linguistic history

Further information: Linguistic geography of Switzerland

The Alps are where French, Italian, German, and South Slavic languages meet. They are also a special place where old dialects like Romansh, Walser German, and Romance Lombardic are still used. Some languages once spoken in the Alps, such as Rhaetic, Lepontic, Ligurian, and Langobardic, are no longer used today.

Because of the Alps' rich history, people's languages and feelings about their country don't always match the current borders. For example, the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol area, which became part of Italy after World War I, has many people who speak German, especially in the northern part called South Tyrol. There are also people who speak Walser German in northern Italy near the Swiss border. In the Italian Aosta Valley, some people speak French and Franco-Provencal. In parts of Italy near the Julian Alps, the Resia Valley, and a mountain area known as Venetian Slovenia, some people speak Slovene, including the special Resian dialect.