Transhumance

Transhumance is a special way that people take care of animals by moving them between different places depending on the season. In places with big changes in height, like mountains, people move their animals up to higher grassy areas in the summer and then down to lower valleys when winter comes. The people who watch over the animals travel with them, but most of the community stays in one place.

This way of life has been used for a very long time in many parts of the world, especially in Europe and western Asia. The food from these animals, like milk, butter, yogurt, and cheese, is very important for the people who live there. Many places even have special names for these summer spots, such as hafod in Wales, shieling in Scotland, or alp in parts of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.

Etymology and definition

The word transhumance comes from French and Latin words meaning "across" and "ground". It literally means crossing the land. This way of life developed on every inhabited continent. Even though cultures and tools differ, the idea of using faraway pastures when seasons change is the same everywhere.

Khazanov groups kinds of moving with animals into five types: "pure pastoral nomadism", "semi-nomadic pastoralism", "semi-sedentary pastoralism", "distant-pastures husbandry" and "seasonal transhumance". Eickelman does not separate transhumant pastoralism from seminomadism, but he does tell apart nomadic pastoralism and seminomadism.

In prehistory

Long ago, before we had written history, people moved their animals between different places each season. Scientists studied animal bones in Europe and found signs that this kind of movement happened a very long time ago.

Many groups of people who live in hilly or mountainous areas have always known how to move their animals. These people have special skills to live and work well in such tough places, learning from their families over many years. They know about taking care of animals, growing food, working with forests, and managing water, even when it freezes or flows quickly.

Europe

Alps

Main article: Alpine transhumance

Balkans

In the Balkans, Albanians, Greek Sarakatsani, Eastern Romance (Romanians, Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians and Istro-Romanians) and Turkish Yörük peoples traditionally spent summer months in the mountains and returned to lower plains in the winter. When the area was part of the Austro-Hungary and Ottoman Empires, borders between Greece, Albania, Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia were relatively unobstructed. In summer, some groups went as far north as the Balkan Mountains, and they would spend the winter on warmer plains in the vicinity of the Aegean Sea.

The Morlach or Karavlachs were a population of Eastern Romance shepherds ("ancestors" of the Istro-Romanians) who lived in the Dinaric Alps (western Balkans in modern use), constantly migrating in search of better pastures for their sheep flocks. But as national states appeared in the area of the former Ottoman Empire, new state borders were developed that divided the summer and winter habitats of many of the pastoral groups. These prevented easy movement across borders, particularly at times of war, which have been frequent.

Poland

In Poland transhumance is known as redyk, and is the ceremonial departure of shepherds with their flocks of sheep and shepherd dogs to graze in the mountain pastures (spring redyk), as well as their return from grazing (autumn redyk). In the local mountain dialect, autumn redyk is called uosod, which comes from the Polish word _uosiadć_code: pol promoted to code: pl (ôsawiedź), meaning “to return sheep to individual farms”. There is also a theory that it comes from the word uozchod (ôzchod), which means “the separation of sheep from individual gazdōwek (farms)”. In this word, there may have been a complete loss of the pronunciation of ch, which in the Podhale dialect (Poland) in this type of positions is pronounced as a barely audible h (so-called sonorous h), similarly to the word schować, which in the highlander language is pronounced as sowa. In the Memoir of the Tatra Society from 1876, the way in which this is done is described: "[...] they herd sheep from the entire village to one agreed place, give them to the shepherds and shepherds one by one, then mix them together and count the number of the whole herd (flock). This is what they call "the reading". The reading is done in such a way that one juhas, holding the chaplet in his hand, puts one bead for each ten sheep counted. The second one takes one sheep from the flock and, as he lets it out of the fenced barracks, counts: one, two, three, etc. up to ten, and after each ten he calls out: "desat"^{[citation needed]}

The leading of the sheep was preceded by magical procedures that were supposed to protect them from bad fate and from being enchanted. For this purpose, bonfires were lit and sheep were led through the fire. It began with the resurrection of the "holy fire" in the kolyba (shepherd's hut). Custom dictated that from that day on, it was to be kept burning continuously by the main shepherd – the shepherd. Next, the sheep were led around a small chevron or spruce tree stuck in the ground – the so-called mojka (which was supposed to symbolize the health and strength of everyone present in the hall) and they were fumigated with burning herbs and a połazzka brought to the sałasz. This was intended to cleanse them of diseases and prevent misfortune. Then the flock was herded around it three times, which was intended to concentrate the sheep into one group and prevent individual animals from escaping. Baca's task was to pull the sheep behind him, helping himself with salt which he sprinkled on the flock. With the help of dogs and whistles, the Juhasi encouraged the herd and made sure that the sheep followed the shepherd. Sheep that fell outside the circle boded ill. It was believed that the number of sheep that fell outside the circle would die in the coming season.^{[citation needed]}

The stay in the pasture (hala) begins on St. Wojciech's Day (23 April), and ends on Michaelmas Day (29 September).

This method of sheep grazing is a relic of transhumant agriculture, which was once very common in the Carpathians. (Carpathian transhumance agriculture).

In the pastoral culture in Poland, Redyk was perceived as the greatest village festival. Farmers who gave their sheep to a shepherd for the entire season, before grazing in the pastures, listed them (most often by marking them with notches on the shepherd's stick, stick or beam), marked them and placed them in a basket made of tynin. In the Memoir of the Tatra Society from 1876, the way in which this is done is described: "[...] they herd sheep from the entire village to one agreed place, give them to the shepherds and shepherds one by one, then mix them together and count the number of the whole herd (flock).

The sheep of all the shepherds were gathered in one place at the foot of the mountains, and then one large herd was driven to the szalas.^{[Presumably this is the Hungarian spelling of sałasz, so it doesn't belong in the Poland section.]} The entrance to the hala was also particularly emphasized: there was shooting, honking and shouting all the way. This was intended to drive away evil spirits from their animals and to keep the entire herd together.

At the end of the ceremony, there was music and dancing together. The musicians played traditional instruments: gajdas and violins. To the accompaniment of music, the Sałashniks performed the oldest individual dance – the owiedziok, the owczarza, the kolomajka, the swinszczok, the masztołka.

Redyk included many local practices, rituals and celebrations. In modern time it is mainly a part of local traditional entertainment. The modern spring and autumn Redyk (sheep drive) has the character of a folkloric spectacle addressed to locals and tourists, but also to the highlanders themselves, who to identify with their traditions. Sometimes common redyk was organised also in Czechia, Slovakia and Romania. In Poland, the organisers was the Transhumant Pastoral Foundation.

Britain

Wales

In most parts of Wales, farm workers and sometimes the farmer would spend the summer months at a hillside summer house, or hafod (pronounced ), where the livestock would graze. During the late autumn the farm family and workers would drive the flocks down to the valleys and stay at the main house or hendref ().

This system of transhumance has generally not been practised for almost a century; it continued in Snowdonia after it ceased elsewhere in Wales, and remnants of the practice can still be found in rural farming communities in the region to this day. Both "Hafod" and "Hendref" survive in Wales as place names and house names and in one case as the name of a raw milk cow cheese (Hafod). Today, cattle and sheep that summer on many hill farms are still transported to lowland winter pastures, but by truck rather than being driven overland.

Scotland

In many hilly and mountainous areas of Scotland, agricultural workers spent summer months in bothies or shielings (àirigh or ruighe in Scottish Gaelic). Major drovers' roads in the eastern part of Scotland include the Cairnamounth, Elsick Mounth and Causey Mounth. This practice has largely stopped but was practised within living memory^[timeframe?] in the Hebrides and in the Scottish Highlands. Today much transhumance is carried out by truck, with upland flocks being transported under agistment to lower-lying pasture during winter.

England

Evidence exists of transhumance being practised in England since at least medieval times, from Cornwall in the south-west, through to the north of England. In the Lake District, hill sheep breeds, such as the Herdwick and Swaledale are moved between moor and valley in summer and winter. This led to a trait and system known as "hefting", whereby sheep and flock remain in the farmer's allotted area (heaf)^{[citation needed]} of the commons, which is still practised.

Ireland

In Ireland, transhumance is known as "booleying". Transhumance pastures were known as buaile, variously anglicised as booley, boley, bouley or boola. These names survive in many place names such as Buaile h'Anraoi in Kilcommon parish, Erris, North Mayo, where the landscape still clearly shows the layout of the rundale system of agriculture. The livestock, usually cattle, was moved from a permanent lowland village to summer pastures in the mountains. The appearance of "Summerhill" (Irish: Cnoc an tSamhraidh) in many place names also bears witness to the practice. This transfer alleviated pressure on the growing crops and provided fresh pasture for the livestock. Mentioned in the Brehon Laws, booleying dates back to the Early Medieval period or even earlier. The practice was widespread in the west of Ireland up until the time of the Second World War. Seasonal migration of workers to Scotland and England for the winter months superseded this ancient system, together with more permanent emigration to the United States.

Italy

Main article: Transumanza

In Southern Italy, the practice of driving herds to hilly pasture in summer was also known in some parts of the regions l and has had a long-documented history until the 1950s and 1960s with the advent of alternative road transport. Drovers' roads, or tratturi, up to 100 metres (328 ft) wide and more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) long, permitted the passage and grazing of herds, principally sheep, and attracted regulation by law and the establishment of a mounted police force as far back as the 17th century. The tratturi remain public property and subject to conservation by the law protecting cultural heritage. The Molise region candidates the tratturi to the UNESCO as a world heritage.

Spain

Main article: Mesta

Transhumance is historically widespread throughout much of Spain, particularly in the regions of Castile, Leon and Extremadura, where nomadic cattle and sheep herders travel long distances in search of greener pastures in summer and warmer climatic conditions in winter. Spanish transhumance is the origin of numerous related cultures in the Americas such as the cowboys of the United States and the Gauchos of Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil.

A network of droveways, or cañadas, crosses the whole peninsula, running mostly south-west to north-east. They have been charted since ancient times, and classified according to width; the standard cañada is between 37.5 to 75 metres (123 to 246 ft) wide, with some cañadas reales (meaning royal droveways) being 800 metres (2,625 ft) wide at certain points. The land within the droveways is publicly owned and protected by law.

In some high valleys of the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, transhumant herding has been the main, or only, economic activity. Regulated passes and pasturage have been distributed among different valleys and communities according to the seasonal range of use and community jurisdiction. Unique social groups associated with the transhumant lifestyle are sometimes identified as a remnant of an older ethnic culture now surviving in isolated minorities, such as the "Pasiegos" in Cantabria, "Agotes" in Navarre, and "Vaqueiros de alzada" in Asturias and León.

The Pyrenees

Transhumance in the Pyrenees involves relocation of livestock (cows, sheep, horses) to high mountains during the summer months, because farms in the lowland are too small to support a larger herd all year round. The mountain period starts in late May or early June, and ends in early October. Until the 1970s, transhumance was used mainly for dairy cows, and cheese-making was an important activity in the summer months. In some regions, nearly all members of a family decamped to higher mountains with their cows, living in rudimentary stone cabins for the summer grazing season. That system, which evolved during the Middle Ages, lasted into the 20th century. It declined and broke down under pressure from industrialisation, as people left the countryside for jobs in cities. However, the importance of transhumance continues to be recognised through its celebration in popular festivals.

The Mont Perdu / Monte Perdido region of the Pyrenees has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site by virtue of its association with the transhumance system of agriculture.

Scandinavian Peninsula

Main articles: no:Seter and no:Støl

In Scandinavia, transhumance is practised to a certain extent; however, livestock are transported between pastures by motorised vehicles, changing the character of the movement. The Sami people practice transhumance with reindeer by a different system than is described immediately below.

The common mountain or forest pasture used for transhumance in summer is called seter or bod / bua. The same term is used for a related mountain cabin, which was used as a summer residence. In summer (usually late June), livestock is moved to a mountain farm, often quite distant from a home farm, to preserve meadows in valleys for producing hay. Livestock is typically tended during the summer by girls and younger women, who also milk and make cheese. Bulls usually remain at the home farm. As autumn approaches and grazing is exhausted, livestock is returned to the farm.

In Sweden, this system was predominantly used in Värmland, Dalarna, Härjedalen, Jämtland, Hälsingland, Medelpad and Ångermanland.

The practice was common throughout most of Norway, due to its highly mountainous nature and limited areas of lowland for cultivation.

The Gudbrandsdal area includes lateral valleys such as Gausdal, Heidal, Vinstra, and Ottadalen. This area comprises lowland parishes about 200 metres (660 ft) above sea-level and mountain parishes about 800 metres (2,600 ft) above sea-level, fertile soil in the main valley and barren summits in Rondane and Dovrefjell. Forests surround those farms, but higher up, woods give way to a treeless mountain plateau. This is the seterfjell, or summer farm region, once of vital importance both as summer pastureland and for haymaking.

While previously many farms had their own seters, it is more usual for several farmers to share a modernised common seter (fellesseter). Most of the old seters have been left to decay or are used as recreational cabins.

The name for the common mountain pasture in most Scandinavian languages derives from the Old Norse term setr. In Norwegian, the term is sæter or seter; in Swedish, säter. The place name appears in Sweden in several forms as Säter and Sätra, and as a suffix: -säter, -sätra, -sätt and -sättra. Those names appear extensively across Sweden with a centre in the Mälaren basin and in Östergötland. The surname "Satter" is derived from these words.

In the heartland of the Swedish transhumance region, the most commonly used term is bod or bua (the word is also used for small storage houses and the like; it has evolved in English as booth); in modern Standard Swedish, fäbod.

The oldest mention of seter in Norway is in Heimskringla, the saga of Olaf II of Norway's travel through Valldal to Lesja.

The practice of summer farming at fäbod and seter in Sweden and Norway has been included in UNESCO's Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage since 2024.

Caucasus and northern Anatolia

In the heavily forested Caucasus Mountains and Pontic Mountains, various peoples still practice transhumance to varying degrees. During the relatively short summer, wind from the Black Sea brings moist air up the steep valleys, which supports fertile grasslands at altitudes up to 2,500 metres (8,202 ft), and a rich tundra at altitudes up to 3,500 metres (11,483 ft). Traditionally, villages were divided into two, three or even four distinct settlements (one for each season) at different heights of a mountain slope. Much of this rural life came to an end during the first half of the 20th century, as the Kemalist and later Soviet governments tried to modernise the societies and stress urban development, rather than maintaining rural traditions.

In the second half of the 20th century, migration for work from the Pontic mountains to cities in Turkey and western Europe, and from the northern Caucasus to Moscow, dramatically reduced the number of people living in transhumance. It is estimated, however, that tens of thousands of rural people still practice these traditions in villages on the northern and southwestern slopes of the Caucasus, in the lesser Caucasus in Armenia, and in the Turkish Black Sea region.

Some communities continue to play out ancient migration patterns. For example, the Pontic Greeks visit the area and the monastery Sumela in the summer. Turks from cities in Europe have built a summer retreat on the former yayla grazing land.

Transhumance related to sheep farming is still practised in Georgia. The shepherds with their flocks have to cross the 2,826 metres (9,272 ft) high Abano Pass from the mountains of Tusheti to the plains of Kakheti. Up until the dissolution of Soviet Union they intensively used the Kizlyar plains of Northern Dagestan for the same purpose.

Asia

Afghanistan

In Afghanistan, people move their animals between high mountain pastures in the summer and warmer valleys in the winter. The central Afghan highlands surround the Koh-i-Baba and continue into the Hindu Kush mountains. Summers are short and cool, while winters are very cold. These highlands have mountain pastures in the summer, and winter pastures in the neighboring lowlands make the region perfect for this way of life. The Afghan Highlands have about 225,000 km² of summer pasture, used by both local people and nomadic groups like the Pashtun Kuchis. Major pastures include Nawur in Ghazni Province and Shewa and the Little Pamir in Badakhshan Province.

In Nuristan, people live in permanent villages with fields nearby. Most of their animals are goats, which are taken to higher summer pastures each spring while most villagers stay behind to work the fields. In the autumn, after harvesting grain and fruit, the animals return for the winter.

India

Jammu and Kashmir in India has one of the largest transhumant populations in the world. A survey in 2021 counted 612,000 members of tribal groups such as Gujjars, Bakkerwals, Gaddis, and Sippis. These groups move their animals between higher pastures in the summer and lower areas in the winter. Most stay within Jammu and Kashmir, but some travel to nearby areas like Punjab. The Gujjar-Bakkerwal tribe makes up nearly 98% of this transhumant population.

The Bhotiya communities in Uttarakhand used to move between low-altitude settlements in winter and high-altitude areas in summer. They traded with Tibet during the summer months. However, this way of life stopped after the Sino-Indian border closed following a war in 1962.

Iran

The Bakhtiari tribe in Iran still practiced moving their animals between valley homes and mountain foothills in the mid-20th century. They traveled along the Zagros Mountains from Azerbaijan to the Arabian Sea.

The Qashqai tribe in southern Iran also moved their animals annually. In the summer, they lived in high mountain areas known as Yaylak, and in the winter, they moved to warmer regions near Firuzabad and other towns. Their large flocks sometimes avoided villages to prevent damage.

Lebanon

In Lebanon, some people move between mountain towns in the summer and coastal towns in the winter. This movement is linked to farming, especially growing fruits, olives, grapes, and citrus. The mountain towns grow summer fruits like apples and pears.

Kyrgyzstan

In Kyrgyzstan, moving animals between summer and winter pastures has always been part of the culture, even during the Soviet period. After independence in 1991, this practice grew stronger again. Kyrgyz people use wool felt tents called yurts while living on summer pastures. Their national flag shows this symbol. They also enjoy a fermented drink made from mare's milk called kumis.

South and East Asia

Transhumance is practiced in many high areas across the Himalaya and surrounding regions. Countries like Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan all have traditions of this seasonal movement. In Mongolia, it helps prevent animal losses during harsh winters. In parts of the Himalaya, such as Zanskar in India and regions in Nepal and Himachal Pradesh, this way of life remains important for local communities. Sometimes the journeys are long enough to be considered true nomadic pastoralism.

Oceania

Australia

In Australia, people have a big ranch culture. Workers called stockmen help move animals to different places where they can eat during different seasons. Moving animals to seasonal pastures is very important in the Australian Alps. People started using this area for summer grazing in the 1830s because the grass lower down wasn't good. This practice helped make animal farming work well in Australia. It also created a special way of life that is a big part of Australia's history. There are still places like old huts and paths that remind us of this time.

Africa

North Africa

The Berber people of North Africa were traditionally farmers living in mountains close to the Mediterranean coast. The Tuareg and Zenaga of the southern Sahara move their animals between pastures seasonally.

Horn of Africa

In rural areas, the Somali and Afar of Northeast Africa move their animals between pastures. They focus on raising camels, along with sheep and goats.

In the Ethiopian Highlands, people move their animals to different areas depending on the season. During times when fields are being used for crops, animals are taken to valleys or mountain tops where they can graze.

For example, cattle from Addi Geza'iti are taken to the gorge of River Tsaliet each rainy season. The animals stay there until it is time to harvest crops.

East Africa

The Pokot community in northwestern Kenya and Uganda move their animals between grasslands in Kenya and Uganda.

The Maasai in Kenya and northern Tanzania also move their cattle between different areas depending on the season.

Nigeria

The Fulbe people in Nigeria raise most of the country’s cattle. Cattle provide food, milk, and strength for work, and are important for social traditions.

Angola

In Southern Angola, the Ovambo and part of the Nyaneka-Khumbi organize their lives around moving their animals between pastures.

Lesotho

The Basotho in Lesotho raise cattle and move them between valleys and high plateaus. Changes in population and water projects have affected their grazing lands.

South Africa

In South Africa, the Nama clan of the Khoikhoi continue to move their sheep and goats between seasonal camps in the Richtersveld. They use portable tents called Matjieshut or Haru Oms for their homes during these moves. The Richtersveld is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its cultural importance.

North America

In the southern Appalachians of the United States in the 19th and early 20th centuries, people raised animals, especially sheep, on grassy bald mountain tops where wild oats grew. Historians think these "balds" might have been used by early native peoples of North America for animals long ago. Without moving animals between seasons, these open areas have started to grow forests since the late 20th century. It is not clear if people will try to protect these special places.

Transhumance, which often uses public land, is still an important practice for raising animals in the western United States. In northern areas, animal herds move to higher ground when the pastures grow green in spring and summer. These uplands are usually public land managed by the United States Forest Service. In winter, herds go to lower, drier areas, often also government land managed by the Bureau of Land Management.

In California and Texas, more land is privately owned. During summer, ranch families, hired shepherds, or cowboys travel to the mountains and stay in simple camps. They might also visit their main ranch and use trailers to bring horses to the mountains.

Traditionally in the American West, shepherds stayed with sheep herds most of the year, looking for the best food for each season. This way of raising animals was strongest in the late 1800s. Both cattle and sheep are usually raised on private land, but sometimes they use more land for different seasons. Some farmers hired Basque shepherds to help move the sheep between grazing areas. Today, workers from Peru, Chile, and Mongolia often take on these roles, while many Basque people have bought their own ranches or moved to cities. Shepherds take sheep to the mountains in summer and to deserts in winter, sometimes using fields left after crops are harvested. There are many different ways people practice transhumance in the United States.

The Navajo started moving their animals in the 1850s after they were moved from their old home near the San Juan River. They still keep many sheep today.

In California, the main ranch usually has more private land because of old rules from Spanish times. Because of this, big areas of oak woodlands and grasslands are cared for by ranches that depend on summer grazing land managed by the U.S. Forest Service.

South America

South American transhumance has special herders known as gaucho in Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern Brazil, llanero in Colombia and Venezuela, and huaso in Chile.

Today, transhumance is practiced in Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Bolivia, as well as in the Brazilian Pantanal. It mostly involves moving cattle in the Pantanal and parts of Argentina. In the Altiplano, some communities raise animals like llamas. In North Neuquén and South Mendoza, people move herds of goats, and in the Patagonian plains, they move sheep. Both Criollos and indigenous peoples use these practices in South America.