History of the monarchy of the United Kingdom

The history of the monarchy of the United Kingdom shows how kings and queens changed over many years. It started long ago in small kingdoms in Anglo-Saxon England and early medieval Scotland. These kingdoms grew into larger ones, and rulers like King John signed important documents such as the Magna Carta to share power with their people.

The union of Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom occurred in 1801 during the reign of King George III

Over time, the power of the monarch decreased as Parliaments grew stronger. After a short time without a king or queen during the Interregnum, rules were made to limit the monarch’s power even more. This created what we now call a constitutional and ceremonial monarchy.

The United Kingdom was formed when England, Scotland, and Ireland joined together. The British monarch was also the leader of a huge British Empire that included many parts of the world. After the Second World War, most of these areas became independent, but they stayed connected in a group called the Commonwealth of Nations. Today, the monarch of the United Kingdom is also the monarch of several other independent countries known as Commonwealth realms.

English monarchy

Main article: History of the English monarchy

Anglo-Saxon period (800s–1066)

Further information: Government in Anglo-Saxon England

By 865, Viking invaders had taken over all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms except Wessex, which stayed strong under Alfred the Great (r. 871–899). Alfred's son Edward the Elder (r. 899–924) and grandson Æthelstan (r. 924–939) slowly took control of the rest of England. Æthelstan first called himself "king of the English" and is seen as the starter of the English monarchy.

While the king had all the power, he needed help from the English church and nobility to lead. The king's group of advisors, called the witan, helped choose new kings. Because the way to become king wasn’t always clear, there were often fights over who should rule. Kings got money from places they owned, fines, and a land tax called geld.

By the time of Edward the Confessor (r. 1042–1066), the government was well organized. Edward made the first chancellor. But he had trouble with a powerful family, the Godwinson family, which caused unrest.

After Edward died, there were many people who wanted to be king. Harold Godwinson became king, but he had to fight off William of Normandy and Harald Hardrada of Norway. After many battles, including the famous Battle of Hastings, William won and was named King of England on Christmas Day in 1066.

England and Normandy in 1087

House of Normandy (1066–1154)

Further information: House of Normandy and Government in Norman and Angevin England

After the Norman Conquest, the English monarchy became very linked with French politics, and English kings were often seen as under the kings of France. The king said he owned all the land, and old Anglo-Saxon noble lands were taken and given to French-speaking Anglo-Normans based on rules called feudalism. The Normans kept the basic English government system. The witan’s job was taken over by the curia regis ('king's court') and magnum concilium ('great council').

The Normans brought new ideas like royal forests and built strong castles across the land. William the Conqueror (r. 1066–1087) built the White Tower, the main part of the Tower of London, which showed the king's power.

William was followed by his sons, William II (r. 1087–1100) and Henry I (r. 1100–1135). Henry made the royal household more formal, created the job of chief justiciar, and made justice easier to reach. He married Matilda of Scotland, linking the House of Normandy with the House of Wessex. Trouble started when Henry’s only son William Adelin died. Henry chose his daughter Empress Matilda as his heir, but this caused argument and made the nobility promise to support her.

Even though people promised to support Matilda, she was not popular because she was a woman and married to someone from Anjou, a place Normandy didn’t like. After Henry died in 1135, his nephew, Stephen of Blois (r. 1135–1154), took the throne with most barons supporting him. Matilda fought against him, and England went into a time of civil war called the Anarchy (1138–1153). Stephen kept control but finally agreed to peace. Both sides agreed to the Treaty of Wallingford, where Stephen said Matilda's son, Henry FitzEmpress, would be his heir.

Angevins (1154–1216)

The Angevin Empire during the reign of Henry II

Further information: Angevin kings of England and Capetian–Plantagenet rivalry

Henry II (r. 1154–1189) made changes to laws that became the base of England's common law system. He invaded Wales, made William the Lion of Scotland agree to be his ruler, and confirmed his control over most of Ireland. Henry also had big problems with Thomas Becket, the archbishop of Canterbury, which showed the fight between rulers and church leaders.

Henry was succeeded by his son, Richard I (r. 1189–1199), known as the Lionheart. He joined the Third Crusade and was away from England most of the time. This caused fights for power and problems with his chosen leader, William de Longchamp. Richard was caught by the Holy Roman Emperor and had to pay a lot of money to be set free. His brother John went against him in France. After returning, Richard fought Philip II of France. Richard died in battle in 1199, naming John as his successor. Eleanor and Arthur, children of John’s late older brother Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany, were left out; later John had Arthur killed, and Eleanor was kept until she died in 1241.

John (r. 1199–1216) had many problems, including losing Normandy, money issues, and fights with barons and the English church. He tried to get money by taxing people, which made the barons angry. In 1215, the barons made John agree to Magna Carta, which tried to limit the king’s power. John tried to cancel Magna Carta, which started the First Barons' War, and he died suddenly in 1216.

Plantagenets (1216–1399)

Further information: House of Plantagenet and Government in late medieval England

Since the Conquest, monarchs have been crowned at Westminster Abbey. Construction of the present church began in 1245 on the orders of Henry III.

During Henry III's rule (1216–1272), the idea that kings must follow the law became stronger. This time saw the start of the English Parliament, which said it could give taxes. In return for money to fight in France, Parliament got more say in government. Henry often listened to people from other countries, which caused fights and made people think he wasn’t a good ruler. In 1258, barons made Henry follow the Provisions of Oxford, giving power to a group of barons. Henry tried to ignore these rules, which led to the Second Barons' War, but he won and got his power back. Henry also spent a lot on royal homes and Westminster Abbey.

Edward I (r. 1272–1307) made many changes through laws approved by Parliament, called statute, and asked Parliament to help pay for wars in Wales and Scotland. Edward took over Wales forever and made English rules there with the Statute of Wales. He got involved in a fight over who should be king of Scotland, which started the First War of Scottish Independence. Edward died in 1307 while getting ready to attack Scotland.

Edward II (1307–1327) had fights with nobles because of people he liked too much. He wouldn’t follow the Ordinances of 1311, which tried to limit the king’s power. This led to problems, including the death of his favorite, Piers Gaveston, and the rise of Hugh Despenser the Younger, who made things worse. Edward’s wife, Isabella, teamed up with Roger Mortimer, and they captured Edward. He was forced to give up the throne in 1327, the first time an English king was removed.

Edward III (r. 1327–1377) took over at 14, but his mother Isabella and Mortimer ruled at first. In 1330, Edward took control at 17. In 1340, Edward said he should be king of France because he was the last male descendant of his grandfather, Philip IV of France. This started the Hundred Years' War. Edward won big battles like the Battle of Crécy and took Calais. Later, he lost Aquitaine. The Good Parliament in 1376 talked about government problems, leading to the first impeachment of leaders and removing Alice Perrers, a woman close to the king. Even with problems, Edward’s time made Parliament more important.

Richard II (r. 1377–1399) became king at 10, but his uncles and courtiers really ruled. Richard showed strong leadership during the Peasants' Revolt, proving he was ready to lead, but his harsh rule caused anger. In 1399, Henry Bolingbroke, Richard’s cousin, led a rebellion that made Richard give up the throne. A convention parliament said Richard was removed, and Bolingbroke took the throne. When Edward II gave up for his son, Parliament broke the normal order by removing Richard. Historian Tracy Borman says this “made the crown unstable.”

House of Lancaster (1399–1461)

Further information: House of Lancaster

Bolingbroke, now Henry IV (r. 1399–1413), had many problems, like rebellions and plots to put Richard back on the throne. His time included the Welsh Revolt, the Battle of Shrewsbury, money troubles, and a big fight in France called the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War.

King Henry V (r. 1413–1422) tried to bring peace by being kind to his father’s enemies and honoring the late Richard II. His time had less trouble at home, so he could focus on the last part of the Hundred Years' War with France. Henry’s big win at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 made people very proud, and he kept winning, taking Normandy in 1419 and being named heir and ruler of France in 1420 through the Treaty of Troyes. Even though he was popular and won battles, getting more money for wars and being away from England a lot were hard. Henry V died in 1422 while fighting in France, leaving his baby son, Henry VI (first time 1422–1461; second time 1470–1471), to rule the dual monarchy of England and France.

Henry VI was a weak ruler. By 1453, he had lost all his French lands except Calais. After France took Gascony, the king had a mental health problem. Parliament chose Richard, duke of York, as lord protector. York and Queen Margaret of Anjou fought for power, starting the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). York said he should be king because he was a descendant of Edward III’s son Lionel, duke of Clarence. York’s son, Edward IV, beat the Lancastrians and became king in 1461. Henry and Margaret ran to Scotland with their son, Edward of Westminster.

House of York (1461–1485)

Further information: House of York

Edward IV often fought with the Lancastrians and his own advisors after marrying Elizabeth Woodville, with Henry VI coming back for a short time. Edward won back the throne at Barnet and killed the Lancastrian heir, Edward of Westminster, at Tewkesbury. He also captured Margaret of Anjou, sending her away, but not before killing Henry VI while he was a prisoner in the Tower. The Wars of the Roses kept happening during his rule and those of his son Edward V and brother Richard III. Edward V disappeared, maybe killed by Richard. Finally, the fight ended in 1485 when Henry Tudor won at the Battle of Bosworth Field, killing Richard III.

Tudors (1485–1603)

Further information: House of Tudor and Elizabethan government

King Henry VII made the remaining York fighters stop by marrying Elizabeth of York, a York heir. With smart leadership, Henry ended the fights with nobles that had troubled earlier kings. The second Tudor king, Henry VIII, had big political changes. Problems with the Pope and because his marriage to Catherine of Aragon only had a daughter, led the king to leave the Roman Catholic Church and start the Church of England (the Anglican Church) and divorce his wife to marry Anne Boleyn.

In 1155, Pope Adrian IV gave Henry II control over Ireland with the papal bull Laudabiliter. Since then, English kings used the title Lord of Ireland. Few kings visited Ireland; they ruled through lieutenants for Ireland. By 1541, King Henry VIII of England left the Church of Rome and said he was Supreme Head of the Church of England. Because the pope’s gift of Ireland was no longer valid, Henry called the Irish Parliament to change his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland (see Monarchy of Ireland). Wales, which was taken long before but still separate, was joined with England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542.

Henry VIII’s son, Edward VI, kept changing religions, but he died young in 1553 and caused a fight over who should be next king. He wanted Lady Jane Grey to be queen, but she only ruled nine days. With lots of support, Mary took over and said she was the real queen. Mary I married Philip of Spain, who was also king. He fought bad wars in France, and she tried to bring England back to the Roman Catholic Church (and punished people who didn’t agree). When she died in 1558, they were replaced by her half-sister Elizabeth I. England went back to Protestantism and grew into a big world power by building its navy and exploring new places.

Scottish monarchy

In Scotland, like in England, kings began to rule after the Roman soldiers left Britain in the early fifth century. The people living there were the Picts in the northeast, the Britons in the south including the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and the Gaels or Scotti from the small Irish kingdom of Dál Riata in the west. Kenneth MacAlpin is seen as the first king of a united Scotland, called Scotia by some writers or Alba by the Scots. Over the next two hundred years, Scotland grew by taking in places like Strathclyde.

Early Scottish kings did not pass the throne directly from parent to child. Instead, they followed a custom called tanistry, where the throne moved between different branches of the House of Alpin. This led to fights between royal families. From 942 to 1005, seven kings were killed in battles or murders. In 1005, Malcolm II became king after defeating many rivals. He ruled strictly and was followed by his grandson Duncan I. In 1040, Duncan lost a battle to Macbeth, who was later killed in 1057 by Duncan's son Malcolm. Malcolm then became king as Malcolm III.

More battles and changes of rulers happened, and finally the throne passed to David I, who was followed by his grandsons Malcolm IV and then William the Lion, the longest-ruling Scottish king before the Union of the Crowns. William tried to oppose the king of England but was captured. He was set free only after agreeing to certain conditions. Later, his son Alexander II and then Alexander III tried to control the Western Isles, which were owned by Norway. After a failed attack by Norway, Scotland won control of these islands through the Treaty of Perth.

In 1603, James VI and I became the first monarch to rule over England, Scotland, and Ireland together.

The death of Alexander III in 1286 caused a big problem over who should be the next king. Leaders in Scotland asked the king of England for help. He chose a young girl, Margaret, but she died on her way to Scotland. Another group of 13 people claimed the throne, and after much discussion, John Balliol was chosen. However, the king of England tried to control Scotland through Balliol. When Balliol refused to agree, war began. For ten years, Scotland had no king until Robert the Bruce declared himself king in 1306.

Robert worked hard to bring peace and independence to Scotland, which was recognized in 1328. He was followed by his young son, David II. Not long after, the English invaded again, supporting another claimant. Over the next few years, the rival was removed and returned several times, but David stayed king for many years.

When David II died without children in 1371, he was succeeded by his nephew Robert II from the House of Stuart. The time of Robert II and his son Robert III saw the power of the kings decrease. When Robert III died in 1406, leaders had to rule because the new king, James I, the son of Robert III, was captured by the English. After paying a large price to be freed, James returned in 1424 and worked hard to regain control, facing opposition from some nobles. His son James II also faced challenges and died in an accident. Then James III took over but was defeated in battle in 1488.

In 1513, James IV led Scotland into a war with England, which ended badly at Flodden Field. Many leaders and soldiers died, and because James’s son was very young, leaders ruled again until he grew up. James V also faced war with England and died in 1542, leaving the throne to his very young daughter, Mary.

Mary faced big changes in religious beliefs in Scotland. After marrying and then losing her husband, she was forced to leave Scotland. The throne passed to her son, James VI, who was raised with different religious beliefs.

Personal union under the Stuarts (1603–1707)

Hanoverians (1714–1901)

In 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by George I, who was also the Elector of Hanover. He became king after defeating rebellions that tried to bring back the Stuart rulers. George I was less involved in government than earlier kings, and power moved to his ministers, including Robert Walpole, who is often called the first British prime minister.

George III, who ruled for a long time, lost the American colonies, which became the United States of America, but Britain grew more powerful in other parts of the world. George III became very ill and could not rule, so his son, the future George IV, acted as Prince Regent. During this time and his own rule, the king's power decreased even more. By the time William IV became king, the monarch could no longer really control Parliament. William IV had to bring back a prime minister he had dismissed after losing elections.

Victoria, William IV’s successor, ruled during a time of big changes and progress. She could not rule Hanover because only men could be kings there, so the link between the United Kingdom and Hanover ended. Victoria became Empress of India in 1876. Her long reign saw Britain become a leading world power, but also saw growing calls for ending the monarchy, partly because she spent much time mourning after her husband’s death in 1861.

Windsors (1901–present)

Map of the British Empire in 1921

Victoria's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1901. In 1910, George V changed the house name to "Windsor" because of strong feelings against Germany during the First World War. During George V's time, Ireland was separated into Northern Ireland, which stayed with the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State, which became independent in 1922.

Through the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations grew out of the British Empire. Before 1926, one monarch ruled over all parts of the empire. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 allowed each Dominion to govern itself fully, and the Statute of Westminster 1931 made this official. The monarch became the ruler of each separate Dominion independently.

After George V died in 1936, his brother Edward VIII became king but caused a problem by wanting to marry a divorced woman. He decided to step down, and his brother George VI became king. George VI helped support people during World War II. In 1948, he gave up the title Emperor of India but remained head of state for India as it became independent.

When India became a republic in 1950, it no longer shared the same monarch as the United Kingdom. The British monarch was called "Head of the Commonwealth" instead, a ceremonial role chosen by Commonwealth leaders.

In the 1990s, some people in the United Kingdom wanted to end the monarchy, especially after news about the Royal Family. But surveys from 2002 to 2018 showed that most people still supported keeping the monarchy.