Government in Anglo-Saxon England

Government in Anglo-Saxon England covers English government during the Anglo-Saxon period from the 5th century until the Norman Conquest in 1066.

Until the 9th century, England was divided into multiple Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Each kingdom had its own laws and customs, but they all shared a common basis in the Germanic legal tradition. In the 9th century, the Kingdom of Wessex absorbed the other kingdoms, creating the unified Kingdom of England.

The king had many important duties, including protecting his people, making fair decisions, and keeping order. Kings could create laws, make coins, collect taxes, build armies, manage trade, and talk with other countries. The witan or royal council helped guide the king, and the royal household managed the day-to-day work of running the country.

England was split into areas called ealdormanries, each led by an ealdorman (later called an earl) chosen by the king. These areas were then divided into shires. The ealdorman made sure the king's rules were followed, oversaw the shire court, and led the local army called the fyrd. A sheriff worked for each shire as the ealdorman's helper. Shires were also split into smaller units called hundreds.

Before unification

Anglo-Saxon settlement (300–500)

Main article: Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain

England was part of the Roman Empire since the 1st century CE. Roman Britain was a region that stretched from the south coast up to Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall. After the Roman army left, Britain became unsafe. Many people took over land, and new leaders appeared.

Archaeological evidence shows that around 430, people from Germany and Denmark, called the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, came to Britain. They settled in small groups and had leaders who called themselves kings.

Origins of kingship (500–600)

By the end of the 6th century, leaders started calling themselves kings. Natural disasters and diseases made life hard, so people followed strong leaders for protection. Kings had special roles and were seen as chosen by gods. They led armies and gave gifts to their followers.

Early kingdoms (600–871)

More kingdoms formed, such as Wessex, East Anglia, and Mercia. By the 9th century, only four big kingdoms remained: East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, and Wessex.

Electing and deposing kings

Kings were not always chosen from the oldest son. Wise men called witans chose the new king. They looked at the person's ability and age. Sometimes kings were removed if they did not lead well.

Christian kingship

Kings helped bring Christianity to their people. They also made laws and decided cases in court. The church followed its own rules, called canon law.

Local administration

Kingdoms were split into smaller areas called shires, lathes, or rapes. Leaders called ealdormen helped manage these areas. All free men had to help protect the kingdom in the army, called the fyrd.

Alfred the Great (871–899)

In the 850s, invaders from Viking countries attacked England. But Alfred the Great of Wessex fought them off. He built strong forts called burhs to protect his people. He also organized his kingdom better, with leaders called ealdormen to help manage different areas.

By 955, Alfred's descendants had created a larger kingdom called England, including areas like Mercia and Northumbria.

Royal government

Kingship

Further information: History of the English monarchy

The king was responsible for protecting his people and leading them in times of war. He was in charge of keeping law and order and managing the economy of his kingdom. Kings had many powers, including making laws, minting coins, collecting taxes, raising armies, and conducting diplomacy. The king also had the right to build bridges and forts and to ensure the safety of visitors to his kingdom.

The king listened to advice from wise counsellors and his inner circle, which included his family and royal household. Kings usually made laws with the help of a group called the witan. The king’s main job was to keep his people safe and lead them during wars. He was also in charge of maintaining laws, order, and the economy. Kings had the power to make laws, mint coins, collect taxes, raise armies, regulate trade, and handle diplomatic matters. The king appointed and could remove royal officers. He also had the right to build bridges and forts and was responsible for protecting visitors to his kingdom.

Succession

From 899 to 1016, descendants of Alfred the Great from the House of Wessex ruled England. From 1016 to 1042, the Danish House of Knýtlinga ruled. Edward the Confessor (r. 1042–1066) brought the House of Wessex back to power, but after he died, Harold Godwinson and then William the Conqueror took over, ending the Anglo-Saxon era.

Although kings were often chosen by their people, there were no strict rules for who could become king. Sometimes a king would choose his successor, and this choice was approved by the witan. If there was no clear heir, the witan would pick the most able person from the royal family. Sometimes this led to disputes and conflicts.

Coronation

When a new king took over, he made promises to keep peace, stop unfair actions, and ensure fair treatment for everyone. After making these promises, the king was anointed with holy oil, which gave him a special, sacred role. This made it very hard to remove a king from power, even if he wasn’t a good ruler.

Royal household

Main article: Royal Households of the United Kingdom § Anglo-Saxon period (871–1066)

The royal household included the king’s family, important advisers, military leaders, priests, and servants. Some noblemen, called thegns, served regularly at court. The king’s household traveled around southern England, as there was no fixed capital city. This moving court was the center of government and handled important duties. Kings gave tasks to household officers, who then managed these duties for the kingdom.

There were usually two or three chamberlains who took care of the king’s bedroom and dressing room. They also managed the king’s money and valuables, acting like the government’s finance department. Priests in the royal chapel took care of the spiritual needs of the household and wrote important documents, such as charters and letters from the king.

Witan

Main article: Witan

Kings needed the support of important people in the kingdom, such as nobles, bishops, and abbots, to keep their power. It was easier to call these people together in meetings called witans rather than try to monitor them all. Witans gave advice to the king and agreed to important decisions. They met in different places and at different times, often during festivals like Christmas or Easter.

Witans helped the king make laws, decide on war or peace, and manage the kingdom’s finances. They also agreed to special taxes and witnessed important documents. When a king died, the witan would choose the new king.

Finances

Coinage

Main article: Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England

The coins used in England were some of the best in Europe. Only the king could make coins, and no one else was allowed to mint money. The king controlled the quality and design of the coins. Money was made at special places called mints, and only official tools were used to make the coins.

The main coin was the penny, made of silver. There were also units of account like shillings, pounds, and marks, but these were not physical coins.

Royal lands and taxation

The king owned a lot of land passed down from previous rulers. This land provided income through rent or food from tenants. The king’s land was divided into estates called manors, some of which provided food for the king’s household, while others were rented out for money.

Kings also collected taxes based on land ownership. One important tax was called Danegeld, used to pay for protection from Viking attacks. Another tax, heregeld, paid for soldiers and sailors but was later stopped. The king could also grant certain rights, like collecting taxes or having sole control over valuable resources.

Local government

Further information: Anglo-Saxon law

Ealdormanries and earldoms

In early times, a leader called an ealdorman was chosen by the king to manage a region called a shire. The ealdorman led the local army, helped make decisions with the church leader, and carried out the king's orders. Over time, one leader might manage several shires together. Later, these leaders were called earls. Even with these leaders, the king kept some areas under his own control.

Shires

Main article: Shire

As the areas grew, the leaders appointed others called sheriffs to help with local matters. By the end of this time, the sheriff was very important. They helped collect taxes, keep order, and make sure the king's rules were followed. Meetings called shire courts happened twice a year to handle many different kinds of problems.

Hundreds and boroughs

Kings later split the shires into smaller parts called hundreds. These smaller areas had their own meetings to handle everyday issues. Leaders called thegns helped make decisions in these meetings. Some special areas, called boroughs, had extra rights to help with trade and business. These places had their own leaders and rules to support their growing commerce.

Church and state

Further information: Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England

In early England, the king and the church worked closely together. The church helped kings by giving them special blessings during ceremonies, and in return, kings protected the church. Many church leaders were educated and helped the king with important decisions and laws.

Kings also had a lot of say in who led the church. They chose or approved bishops and abbots, who were important leaders not just for religion but also for managing large lands. These church leaders helped with governing and even sometimes fought in battles, just like other important landowners.

Military

Main articles: Fyrd and Anglo-Saxon warfare

During the Anglo-Saxon period, England did not have a standing army. Instead, kings and nobles had personal guards. Later, these guards included Scandinavian soldiers called housecarls. The king also had loyal companions known as thegns and cnihtas, which means knights in Old English.

Kings could gather more soldiers when needed. Landowners had to provide men based on how much land they owned, and all free men had to serve in the fyrd when called. Areas called shires would send a set number of soldiers. For example, one area provided one soldier for every five pieces of land. Together, this could make a large army of up to 14,000 people.

Towns called burhs helped protect the land. Each piece of land provided one person to help keep these towns safe. Leaders like earls and sheriffs would guide soldiers in battles, while bishops looked after the safety of their areas.

Edward the Confessor also had a small group of ships manned by foreign soldiers, with 14 ships in 1050. The Cinque Ports also provided ships in return for special rights.