Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo officially ended the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). It was signed on February 2, 1848, in the town of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

After Mexico lost its army and its capital city in September 1847, peace talks began with the U.S. envoy, Nicholas Trist. The treaty required Mexico to give up 55 percent of its land. This included the areas that are now California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, and parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. Mexico also gave up all claims to Texas and agreed that the Rio Grande would be the southern border of Texas.

In return, the U.S. government paid Mexico $15 million and agreed to cover debts that the Mexican government owed to American citizens. People of Mexican heritage living in the land taken by the United States could choose to move inside Mexico’s new borders or become U.S. citizens with full rights.

The United States approved the treaty on March 10, and Mexico did so on May 19. The official exchange of approvals happened on May 30, and the treaty was announced on July 4, 1848.

The U.S. Senate approved the treaty with a vote of 38 to 16. Some senators, mainly from the Whigs party, opposed the treaty because they did not support the war or the idea of manifest destiny. Later, in 1853, the United States gained even more land from Mexico through the Gadsden Purchase, which added parts of southern Arizona and New Mexico.

Negotiators

Nicholas Trist was the main negotiator for the peace talks. He worked for the U.S. State Department and went with General Winfield Scott as a diplomat. He represented President James K. Polk. After two earlier tries that didn’t work, Trist and General Scott decided Mexico needed to be treated as a conquered enemy. Trist then talked with a special group from Mexico that included José Bernardo Couto, Miguel de Atristain, and Luis Gonzaga Cuevas.

Terms

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war between Mexico and the United States. Mexico gave up large areas of land, including Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México. The treaty did not list all the lands being given up, but it described the new border between the two countries. The border followed the Rio Grande and then went west to what is now New Mexico, and further west to areas that are now part of several U.S. states.

The treaty also protected the property rights of Mexican people living in the areas that became part of the United States. Most chose to become U.S. citizens, while some moved back to Mexico. The United States agreed to help stop raids by Indians into Mexico and to return any people captured in those raids. However, these promises were hard to keep, and raids continued for some time.

The land gained by the United States through this treaty later became parts of nine U.S. states, including California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona. The United States paid Mexico for this land, and the area was large enough to help build a railroad connecting the country.

Background to the war

Mexico had claimed a large area since it became independent from the Spanish Empire in 1821. This land included places like California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas. The land was dry and mountainous, with only about 80,000 people living there.

In 1845, the United States decided to bring the Republic of Texas into the country. Mexico did not recognize Texas as its own and saw this move as a cause for war. Efforts to solve the problem, including talks with other countries, did not work. Tensions grew until fighting began after an incident where Mexican forces attacked American soldiers. This led to the United States declaring war on Mexico in May 1846.

Conduct of war

Main article: Mexican–American War

U.S. forces moved beyond Texas to take control of Alta California and New Mexico. Fighting ended on January 13, 1847, with an agreement at Campo de Cahuenga and the end of the Taos Revolt. By September 1847, U.S. forces had invaded central Mexico and taken over Mexico City.

Peace talks began after Mexico faced many losses. Some in the U.S. wanted to take all of Mexico, but President Polk’s speech in December 1847 said the goal was to secure California and New Mexico up to the 32nd parallel north, and possibly Baja California and rights to cross the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

Mexico was unwilling to give up these lands, even with its capital occupied. The Mexican government hoped differences within the U.S. over the war might help them. They also worried about the issue of slavery dividing the U.S.

Mexican leaders intercepted a secret letter showing the U.S. was flexible on some demands. They refused to give up Baja California or transit rights. They offered to sell Alta California north of the 37th parallel north and recognize Texas as part of the U.S., but wanted the Nueces River as a boundary.

The U.S. government could not accept these terms. After many discussions, Nicholas Trist, a U.S. representative, negotiated a treaty with Mexico even after being told to return. President Polk sent the treaty to the Senate.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February 2, 1848, by Nicholas Trist for the United States and Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain for Mexico, in the Basilica of Guadalupe in Villa Hidalgo, while U.S. troops occupied Mexico City.

The U.S. Senate made some changes to the treaty. They removed a part promising to honor land grants from Spain and Mexico. They also changed rules about how Mexicans living in the new U.S. lands could become citizens. An attempt to add more land to the U.S., including parts of Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, Coahuila, and Chihuahua, was defeated.

The treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate on March 10, 1848, and by Mexico on May 19, 1848. It was proclaimed on July 4, 1848.

Effects

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo changed many borders and rights. It set the Rio Grande as the boundary between Texas and Mexico, with special teams from both countries working to mark the border. It also set California’s southern border to include San Diego and its important harbor.

The United States gained large areas that are now the states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming. Most of these lands had few people living there, mainly Indigenous Americans.

The treaty also let people living in these areas choose to become U.S. citizens or stay Mexican citizens and move away. It influenced rules about property in these new states and created some disagreements between the U.S. and Mexico, including fights over land and borders. These issues helped cause tensions that later led to the American Civil War. Special groups were set up to manage the borders and water between the two countries.