Northumbria

Northumbria was an early medieval English kingdom that existed between 654 and 1066 AD. It covered parts of what we now call Northern England and Southern Scotland.

The name "Northumbria" comes from the Old English words meaning "the people or province north of the Humber." This was because it was north of the Humber Estuary. Before it became one kingdom, the area was split into two smaller kingdoms called Deira and Bernicia. After some fighting, these two kingdoms joined together under the rulers of Bernicia.

At its strongest point, Northumbria reached from the Humber, Peak District, and River Mersey in the south all the way up to the Firth of Forth in the north. Later, Northumbria stopped being its own kingdom. The Danes took over Deira and made it part of the Kingdom of York. The northern part, called the Earldom of Bamburgh, was eventually taken over by Scotland, while the southern part became part of England as Northumberland and the County Palatine of Durham.

Kingdom (654–954)

Northumbria started as two smaller kingdoms called Deira and Bernicia. Deira was south of the River Tees, and Bernicia was north of it. These areas might have been home to ancient Celtic tribes before the Anglo-Saxons arrived.

Over time, these two kingdoms joined together. Leaders from both areas sometimes fought, but they also used marriages to connect their families and bring peace. Vikings from Scandinavia later attacked Northumbria, splitting it again for a time. Even with these challenges, Northumbria remained an important part of early England.

Kings

Northumbria had many kings over the years, and their rules were often short and filled with conflict. Some of the well-known kings include:

• Æthelfrith: The first to rule both Deira and Bernicia.
• Edwin: Brought Christianity to Northumbria and ruled from 616 to 633.
• Oswald: A strong Christian king who rebuilt Northumbria after a battle loss.
• Oswiu: Oswald’s brother who won a big battle and helped unite Christian practices.

Other kings came and went, often losing their thrones or facing violent ends. The last Viking king, Eric of York, ruled briefly before Northumbria was fully taken over by other English rulers.

Ealdormen and earldoms of Northumbria

Main article: Earl of Northumbria

See also: Ealdorman

After people from Wessex took over areas south of the Tees, attacks from Scots made what was left of Northumbria into a smaller area ruled by an earl. This area stretched from the Tyne to the Tweed. The part of Northumbria that survived, along with the group called the Haliwerfolk between the Tyne and Tees, were fought over by the growing kingdoms of England and Scotland. The area was split nearly in half along the River Tweed.

Religion

Roman and post-Roman Britain

During the time of the Romans, some people north of the Humber followed Christianity. York had a bishop as early as the fourth century. After the Romans left Britain in the early fifth century, Christianity stayed, but it mixed with older beliefs. When Anglo-Saxons arrived, they brought their own traditions and ideas.

Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity

The first king of Northumbria to become Christian was King Edwin. He was baptized by Paulinus in 627, and many people followed him. However, when Edwin died in 633, some returned to their old ways. Later, a lasting change happened thanks to an Irish priest named Aidan. He helped King Oswald become Christian in 635 and worked to share the faith with others. King Oswald moved the religious center from York to Lindisfarne.

Monasteries and figures of note

Aidan started a monastery at Lindisfarne in 635, modeled after one in Scotland. This place became very important for religion in Northumbria. Over time, many respected leaders came from there, including Aidan, Wilfrid, and Cuthbert. They all became bishops and were later honored as saints. Another important person was Hieu, who started a monastery at Hartlepool with Aidan's help.

Northumbria's Christian culture was shaped by both Europe and Ireland. Wilfrid traveled to Rome and brought back new ways, leaving behind older Irish traditions. He helped start a new monastery at Ripon in 660. Another monastery was created at Monkwearmouth–Jarrow by Benedict Biscop, who brought many books from Rome. His successor, Ceolfrith, kept adding to the library, which grew to hold over two hundred books. One famous learner there was Bede.

In York, Paulinus started a school and a church in the early seventh century. By the late eighth century, this school had a library with about one hundred books. Alcuin studied and taught there before moving to work for Charlemagne in 782.

Synod of Whitby

Main article: Synod of Whitby

In 664, King Oswiu called a meeting called the Synod of Whitby to decide whether Northumbria should follow Roman or Irish religious customs. Many people, especially at the Lindisfarne monastery, preferred the Irish way of calculating the date of Easter. But Wilfrid, who was from Ripon, supported the Roman customs. The king chose to adopt the Roman practices, aligning Northumbria with the rest of Southern England and Western Europe. Some clergy who disagreed, like the bishop from Lindisfarne, returned to Scotland. The main religious center moved from Lindisfarne back to York, which later became an important archbishopric in 735.

Impact of Scandinavian raiding, settlement and culture

In 793, Vikings attacked the monastery at Lindisfarne, marking the start of many raids on religious places in Northumbria. Even though important items like the Lindisfarne Gospels survived, the monastic way of life weakened. Continuous Viking attacks reduced the creation of books and the shared monastic traditions.

After 867, Scandinavian forces took control of Northumbria, bringing new people and their ancient beliefs. Once the fighting stopped, these new settlers slowly adopted Christianity, mixing their own culture with their new faith. This blend can be seen in stone carvings and special crosses, like the Gosforth Cross. During the ninth and tenth centuries, more parish churches were built, often featuring stone sculptures with Scandinavian designs.

Culture

The culture of Northumbria was rich and influenced by many places, including nearby lands and Ireland. This mix helped create many beautiful artworks and stories.

Irish monks helped bring Christianity to Northumbria and set up important places like Lindisfarne. They brought special ways of making art and writing. One famous example is the Lindisfarne Gospels, a beautifully decorated book.

Northumbria was also known for its writers. Bede, a famous writer from Northumbria, wrote many important books about the history of the English people. There were also poets who wrote religious poems in their own language.

Over time, new people called Vikings came from Scandinavia. They brought their own traditions, but they also mixed with the local culture. This mixing can be seen in carvings and statues that show both old stories and new Christian ideas. One example is the Gosforth Cross, which has carvings of both Norse myths and Christian symbols.

Economy

Northumbria's economy was based on farming, with animals and land being important in local trade. By the mid-800s, many farms likely used the open field system. Northumbria exported grain, silver, hides, and slaves. They imported oil, luxury goods, and church supplies from Frankia in the 700s. After 793, raids, gifts, and trade with Scandinavians created strong economic connections across the North Sea.

When coins became popular again in the late 600s, Northumbrian coins carried kings' names, showing royal control of money. This royal currency was unique in Britain for a long time. King Aldfrith (685–705) made Northumbria's first silver coins, probably in York. Later coins bore the name of King Eadberht (738–758) and his brother, Archbishop Ecgbert of York. These coins were small silver sceattas, good for everyday use, unlike larger gold coins from Frankia or Rome. During King Eanred's time, the silver in coins decreased until they were made from copper alloy, called stycas. Stycas were used until at least the 860s, maybe later. Larger silver pieces were found in the Bedale Hoard, along with sword fittings and necklaces in gold and silver.

Language

See also: Northumbrian Old English

Long ago, there were five main languages in Britain: English, British, Irish, Pictish, and Latin. Northumbrian was one of four types of Old English, along with Mercian, West Saxon, and Kentish. We know from old writings and objects that the way people said words in Northumbrian was a bit different from West Saxon.

Some words in English came from older Celtic languages, like the names Deira and Bernicia. Later, during the ninth century, people from Norse areas moved into northern and eastern England, a place called the Danelaw. They brought their own language, called Old Norse, which changed Northumbrian in many ways. Many place-names and words in the area today come from Old Norse. This mixing of languages also changed how some English words were used and shaped the way people spoke.