Public administration

Public administration is the process of putting government plans and policies into action. It helps solve problems and address important social and economic issues that affect people’s lives. This work happens mainly within government programs, but it also involves managing nonprofit organizations and working with businesses that support the government.

In schools and universities, public administration is studied as a part of political science. It looks at how decisions are made, how policies are created, and how different parts of society interact with government institutions. The goal is to make sure that organizations run well and serve the public effectively.

In the middle of the last century, a German sociologist named Max Weber introduced important ideas about how bureaucracies—or large organizations—should work. Later, in 1968, a meeting at Syracuse University led to the development of a new way of thinking called New Public Administration, which continues to shape the field today.

Definitions

Public administration is about carrying out and managing government policies and public matters. It includes organizing, running, and coordinating different parts of government in the public sector. People who work in public administration help create and carry out policies, manage resources, and make sure government agencies and programs run well.

Many people have tried to define public administration in different ways. In 1947, Paul H. Appleby said it is about leading public matters with direct responsibility for action. In democracies, it focuses on leadership that respects and supports citizens. More recently, some scholars say it is hard to define because the subject is so broad. Public administration is both a field of study and a type of job. Some think it is part of political science, while others see it differently. Overall, it is about how governments provide services and manage public needs.

History

India in the 6th century BCE

The ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had organized groups of public workers, showing early forms of public administration. Many writings mention Brihaspati and his ideas about laws and governing. Records from Ain-i-Akbari, written by Abul Fazl, talk about meetings of wise people from different beliefs in 1578. Some thinkers from the Charvaka group may have been part of these meetings. Kautilya wrote about ways to deal with enemies hiding as friends. Brihaspati, from the Charvaka group, lived around the same time as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.

Archaeological findings from Harappa and Mohenjo-daro show large cities with public buildings like storage areas and bathhouses. The uniform sizes of artifacts and bricks suggest some central organization. Though we don’t know much about social classes, most people seemed to have similar status.

Antiquity to the 19th century

Since ancient times, governments needed workers like treasurers and tax collectors to handle everyday tasks. Before the 1800s, many public jobs were filled through family ties, favors, or political support, known as the "spoils system". Public workers were often called the "eyes and ears" of leaders. In the Middle Ages, knowing how to read and write was a special skill mostly held by educated people, which also helped in government work. As European powers expanded their control around the world, they needed better ways to manage their growing territories.

Roots in ancient China

The idea of organizing work may have started in ancient China, possibly with the first centralized government and early use of tests to choose workers based on skill. China was seen as advanced in public administration until the late 1700s.

British writer Thomas Taylor Meadows said in 1847 that China’s long-lasting government was because of good leadership and choosing talented people. This idea influenced reports in Britain that suggested using tests to pick government workers. Like Britain, France also looked to China for ideas about organizing government work.

Europe in the 18th century

In the 1700s, King Frederick William I of Prussia created special classes to train new public workers. Universities in Frankfurt an der Oder and the University of Halle focused on teaching economics and social issues to help improve society. Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi was a well-known teacher of these ideas.

Lorenz von Stein, a German teacher from Vienna, is often called the founder of public administration science. He believed that public administration needed to use many different areas of study, like sociology and political science, and should mix theory with practical work.

In the United States

The person often called the founder of public administration in the US is Woodrow Wilson. In 1887, he wrote an article called "The Study of Administration" where he said that studying public administration helps us understand what government should do and how to do it efficiently and at low cost.

By the 1920s, many teachers had started using Wilson’s ideas in their books. Important teachers from that time include Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, Henri Fayol, and Frederick Taylor. Taylor believed that careful study could find the best way to do any job. His ideas were first used in businesses and later in government.

In 1937, a group of experts advised President Franklin D. Roosevelt to make big changes in the US government. Their advice led to the creation of a special office that reports directly to the president. The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) started in 1939, and it publishes a journal called Public Administration Review. The National Academy of Public Administration is a group that works on research to help government solve its biggest problems.

1940s

The idea of keeping politics separate from administration, started by Wilson, is still important today. But starting in the 1940s, some teachers began to question this idea. Luther Gulick suggested a new way that mixed different roles and actions instead of keeping them separate.

Gulick and Lyndall Urwick built on ideas from many teachers and experts. They focused on making organizations work better using science and careful planning. They introduced a set of duties for leaders using the acronym POSDCORB, which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting.

1950s - 1970s

In the 1950s, the US was prosperous and seen as a world leader. Public administration was popular because of successful efforts in wars and rebuilding after the war. But in the 1960s and 1970s, people became unhappy with the government because of problems like the costly American intervention in Vietnam and scandals like the Watergate scandal.

People wanted the government to work better and more efficiently. Leaders supported these changes. A group led by Louis Brownlow studied how to reorganize the government. Their work helped create new ways to manage government work.

During this time, public administration also started to include ideas from other subjects like psychology and sociology. New teachers brought fresh ideas about how government should work. Events like the civil rights movement and the women’s movement also led to changes, giving more people a voice in government.

1980s - 1990s

In the late 1980s, new ideas about public administration appeared, called New Public Management. These ideas suggested using business-like methods to make government work better and faster. During the time of President Clinton, Vice President Al Gore used these ideas to change federal agencies.

Some people worried that treating citizens like "customers" was not the right way for government to work, because governments should serve all people, not just focus on profit like businesses. But many governments around the world adopted these new ideas.

Later, new models like digital era governance focused on using technology to improve government services. One example is an Australian project called openforum.com.au where people can discuss policies online.

Another model is New Public Governance, which gives more power to political leaders and focuses on how government workers support the current leaders.

In the mid-1980s, community programs in the US aimed to help everyone, including people with disabilities, live independently and take part in community life. By the 1990s, special programs for people with disabilities became more common in schools and government.

Women's civic clubs and the Settlement movement

Modern teachers are learning about the important roles women played in early public administration. In the 1800s, women in the US and Europe started groups to improve their towns. These groups worked on cleaning streets, providing clean water, and making workplaces safer. They also pushed for things like playgrounds and libraries.

These women’s groups became strong and helped change laws and government policies. They worked on making cities safer and better for families, especially children. Their efforts led to new laws about workplace safety and care for older people.

Leaders like Jane Addams were important in this movement. They started settlement houses in busy city areas to help immigrants and poor families. These houses provided support and helped people get better lives.

The Settlement movement created a new way of thinking about public administration, focusing on caring for people and making sure everyone had a fair chance. Women like Jane Addams, Julia Lathrop, and Florence Kelley worked as government inspectors and leaders, helping to shape modern government services.

Branches

In schools, public administration looks at different ways governments and groups work together. Some important parts include:

• Organizational theory in public administration studies how governments are built and run.
• Ethics in public administration helps make fair choices for the public.
• Policy analysis and program evaluation look at how well plans work.
• Public budgeting decides how to share limited money for many needs.
• Public finance checks how government money comes in and goes out.
• Human resource management makes sure public workers are treated fairly and with respect.

Other topics include how nonprofit groups operate, how communities prepare for big problems, and how technology helps governments serve people better.

Academic field

Further information: Public policy school, Public policy degrees, and Political science § Education

Universities offer degrees in Public Administration or Government, Political Science, and International Affairs. These programs focus on how governments make and carry out policies. Graduate degrees include the Master of Public Administration (MPA), Master of Arts (MA), and Master of Science (MS) in Public Administration, as well as the Master of Public Policy (MPP).

In the United States, public administration studies often include political science and administrative law. Some programs also teach economics to help students understand important issues like national debt. Scholars have written about the history and importance of government organizations. Some believe public administration needs to better define its role and catch up in methods and theories.

International organizations

There are several groups around the world that help countries work together on public administration. The International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS) is the oldest, started in 1930 in Brussels, Belgium. Another group, the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA), based in the United States, works with schools and experts worldwide.

Some of these groups focus on specific areas. For example, the Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD) helps schools in Latin America. NISPAcee brings together experts from Central and Eastern Europe, including the Russian Federation. The Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration (EROPA), based in the Philippines, holds yearly meetings and publishes a journal called Asian Review of Public Administration.

Public management

Public management is a way of running government and nonprofit groups that uses ideas from businesses. This helps make sure things are done efficiently and effectively, and that people get good service. It is different from studying public administration, which looks more at the social and cultural reasons behind government actions.

Many places around the world study public management. For example, in the US, groups like the American Society for Public Administration and schools like Indiana University Bloomington focus on it. Other countries have their own groups and schools, such as the Institute of Public Administration of Canada in Canada, the London School of Economics in the UK, and the École nationale d'administration in France. These organizations help improve how governments work by looking at how well they perform their tasks.