Rare-earth element

Rare-earth elements, also called rare-earth metals, are a group of 17 special metals that are important for many modern technologies. These metals include the 15 lanthanides, as well as scandium and yttrium. They are used in many things we use every day, like computers, phones, strong magnets, lasers, and even parts of cars that run on electricity.

Even though we call them "rare," these elements are not actually rare in the world. They are found in the Earth's crust, but they are usually mixed with other materials and hard to separate. Because of this, it takes a lot of work and energy to get them in a form we can use.

One reason these elements are so important today is because the world is moving toward cleaner energy. Things like electric cars and wind turbines need rare-earth elements to work. As countries try to use more of these clean technologies, the need for rare-earth elements keeps growing.

Right now, most of the world's rare-earth elements come from China, which has controlled how much it sells. This has led other countries, like the United States and Australia, to look for more of these metals in their own lands. Scientists and governments are also studying how to make the process of getting these elements better for both people and the environment.

History

1787: Discovery

Rare earth elements were first found as parts of minerals. The word "rare" means these minerals are hard to find, and "earth" is an old term for oxides, a common form of these elements in minerals.

In 1787, a mineral found by Lieutenant Carl Axel Arrhenius at a quarry in Ytterby, Sweden, was studied by professor Johan Gadolin. This led to the discovery of an unknown oxide called yttria.

1794–1878: Chemical isolation

In 1794, Anders Gustav Ekeberg found beryllium but missed other elements. Later, minerals from Bastnäs near Riddarhyttan, Sweden, were studied by Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger. In 1803, they found a white oxide named ceria. It took many years to discover that these ores contained more elements. Their similar properties made them hard to separate.

1879–1930s: Spectroscopic identification

For 30 years, no new elements were found, and didymium was listed with a set weight. In 1879, new tests showed didymium had hidden elements. That same year, Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran found samarium from a mineral called samarskite.

More tests between 1886 and 1901 found new elements in samaria, yttria, and samarskite. In 1901, europium was discovered.

1940s onwards: Purification

In the 1940s, scientists in the United States developed new ways to separate and clean rare-earth elements. The missing element, Promethium, was made in a lab in 1945 and was the last rare earth element to be found. It does not exist in large amounts in nature.

Etymology

The word "rare" in "rare-earth" is a bit misleading because these elements aren't actually rare. They just aren't found by themselves as pure metals; instead, they are only found mixed in with other materials. The word "earth" comes from an old term for minerals that can dissolve in acids. These elements are usually found mixed together or with radioactive materials like uranium and thorium, which makes it hard to separate them from each other. Because of this, purifying them is quite challenging.

List of rare-earth elements

Rare-earth elements are a group of 17 special metals. They are called "rare" not because they are uncommon, but because they are hard to find and extract from the earth. These elements are very similar to each other, which makes them tricky to separate.

These elements are used in many important things like electronics, lasers, and strong magnets. Some of these elements are named after scientists who discovered them, and others are named after places where they were found.

Classification

Before scientists had good ways to separate these elements, they grouped them into two main families: the cerium group and the yttrium group. This was based on how these elements behave when mixed with certain chemicals.

Today, we usually split them into light and heavy rare-earth elements. The light ones have lower numbers and the heavy ones have higher numbers. This grouping helps scientists study their properties better.

Origin of rare-earth elements

Most rare-earth elements are made in stars, similar to how other heavy elements are created. They are found in certain minerals in the ground, but these minerals are not easy to mine because the elements look almost the same chemically. This makes them more expensive to obtain than other metals.

Properties

Rare-earth elements look silvery and shiny, and they can be shaped easily. They react slowly with water and can catch fire when very hot. Some of these elements are important for special jobs in living things, like in certain tiny organisms. Most of their compounds are safe, but some can be harmful if eaten.

Rare-earth compounds

Rare-earth elements are usually found combined with other elements like phosphate, carbonate, or oxygen. When mixed with oxygen, they form special kinds of oxides that have different shapes depending on the element and temperature. These oxides are important for many technological uses.

Geological distribution

Rare-earth elements are found in Earth's crust in amounts similar to many common metals. The most common one is cerium, which is actually the 25th most common element in Earth's crust, more plentiful than copper. An exception is promethium, a rare and unstable element that exists in very small amounts—about 572 grams in the entire Earth's crust.

These elements often appear together. During Earth's formation, they settled into the planet's deeper layers. Because of their unique properties, they don't fit well into most rocks and tend to collect in melted material. This leads to differences in how they are found, with some types more common in melted rock and others staying in solid minerals.

There are important minerals that contain these elements. For example, xenotime holds yttrium and heavier rare earths, while monazite holds cerium and lighter rare earths. These minerals are found in various places around the world, and some are important for getting these elements for use in technology and industry.

Extraction and production

Rare-earth elements (REEs) are purified from rare-earth oxides (REOs). Because of their properties, they are often spread out and not found in large groups.

Until 1948, most of the world's rare earths came from sand deposits in India and Brazil. In the 1950s, South Africa was the main source. From the 1960s to the 1980s, the Mountain Pass mine in California made the United States the top producer. In the 1990s, European countries, especially France, produced a lot of rare earths. After China lowered prices in the 1990s, many mines in other countries closed, and it takes years to start production again.

In 2009, the world needed more rare-earth elements than could be supplied, unless new sources were found. Because of increased demand and limits on exports from China, some countries started storing rare-earth resources. Searches for new sources continued in many countries. In 2013, it was said that demand for REEs would grow because they are important for new technology like smartphones, digital cameras, computer parts, and solar energy equipment. They are also used in industries like military equipment and glassmaking. The need for these elements has grown, and there is worry that the world may run low on rare earths. By late 2023, the global demand for REEs was expected to grow more than five times by 2030.

In 2017, China made most of the world's rare-earth supply, although it had only a part of the world's reserves. Australia was the second-largest producer. In 2023, there were over a hundred mining projects happening, many outside of China.

As of 2025, most of the world's rare-earth refining happened in China, which mines and refines them on a large scale. China mines over half of the world's rare earths and processes almost 90% of them. Around 80% of US rare-earth supply comes from China, and the EU gets about 98% of its rare earths from China. The global market for rare earths is about 300,000 metric tons each year, worth about US$5 billion.

Because of their properties, rare-earth elements are usually spread out and not often found in large groups of minerals. Until 1948, most rare earths came from sand deposits in India and Brazil. In the 1950s, South Africa was the main source. From the 1960s to the 1980s, the Mountain Pass mine in California made the United States the top producer. In the 1990s, European countries, especially France, produced a lot of rare earths. After China lowered prices in the 1990s, many mines in other countries closed, and it takes years to start production again.

In 2009, the world needed more rare-earth elements than could be supplied, unless new sources were found. Because of increased demand and limits on exports from China, some countries started storing rare-earth resources. Searches for new sources continued in many countries. In 2013, it was said that demand for REEs would grow because they are important for new technology like smartphones, digital cameras, computer parts, and solar energy equipment. They are also used in industries like military equipment and glassmaking. The need for these elements has grown, and there is worry that the world may run low on rare earths. By late 2023, the global demand for REEs was expected to grow more than five times by 2030.

In 2017, China made most of the world's rare-earth supply, although it had only a part of the world's reserves. Australia was the second-largest producer. In 2023, there were over a hundred mining projects happening, many outside of China.

As of 2025, most of the world's rare-earth refining happened in China, which mines and refines them on a large scale. China mines over half of the world's rare earths and processes almost 90% of them. Around 80% of US rare-earth supply comes from China, and the EU gets about 98% of its rare earths from China. The global market for rare earths is about 300,000 metric tons each year, worth about US$5 billion.

The top countries for rare-earth reserves, as of February 2025, are:

China

In 2009, China said it would lower the amount of rare earths it sells each year. It also made new rules about selling them and stopped selling to Japan because of a disagreement. China made smaller mines join bigger state-owned companies or close. By the end of 2010, China said it would sell less in 2011 than it did in 2010. It also said it would sell less in the second half of 2011. In September 2011, China stopped some of its biggest mines.

In March 2012, the US, EU, and Japan talked to China about these rules. China said the rules were to protect the environment. In August 2012, China said it would lower production even more. The US, Japan, and EU sued China in 2012, saying China should not stop selling these important materials.

In 2012, when new mines opened in other countries, prices for rare earths went down. The price of one type of rare earth was US$994 per kilogram in 2011, but dropped to US$265 by 2014.

In August 2014, a group decided China broke trade rules. China said it would follow the decision but needed time. By January 2015, China stopped all limits on selling rare earths, but you still needed special papers to buy them.

China closed some mines because they hurt the environment and started mining in Myanmar.

In 2019, China sold most of the world's rare-earth powders, mostly from Myanmar. After a big change in Myanmar in 2021, getting these materials might become harder.

Between 2020 and 2023, 70% of all rare earths imported into the United States came from China.

As of 2025, China mined 70% of the world's rare earths but processed around 90% of the world's supply, refining not only its own ore but also nearly all of Myanmar's and Australia's, as well as almost half of American production.

In 2025, during trade problems between China and the United States, China limited the sale of some rare earths to the US.

Brazil

Brazil has the second-largest amount of rare earths in the world, at 23%, but did not make them on a big scale until recently. As of June 2025 the Brazilian Government is providing nearly $1 billion in funding. Brazil is now seen as a strong competitor to China.

In 2025, an old mine near Minaçu started making four rare earths on a big scale, the first place outside Asia to do this. A company controlled by an American investment fund began digging up rare-earth minerals to send to China to be processed. Mining is done in shallow holes, using only water and salt. An Australian company has mining rights in Bahia state. Other companies working in Brazil focus on environmentally-friendly ways to get rare earths.

India

India has the third-largest amount of rare earths in the world, at 6.9 million tonnes, including a big part of the world's sand mineral deposits. The country has been growing its rare-earth industry because of limits from China. The government-owned Indian Rare Earths is a big part of this. In July 2025, it was reported that India has around 7.23 million tonnes of rare earth oxides in sands along the coast and in rivers in several states. Another 1.29 million tonnes are in rocks in Gujarat and Rajasthan. India is working on finding more rare earths and has started a plan to become better at making and using them. With the growing need for rare earths in electric vehicles and clean energy, India has faced shortages.

The Ministry of Mines has made agreements with several countries to work together on rare earths.

Australia

In 2011, Australia made 1,995 tonnes of rare earths. By 2021, it was the fourth largest maker, with 19,958 tonnes. As of August 2025 the biggest Australian rare-earth companies are Lynas Corporation; Iluka Resources; Brazilian Rare Earths; Arafura Rare Earths; and Northern Minerals. In November 2024, the Australian government announced a program to help projects worth $US8.5bn (A$13bn) in both countries over six months. The government's plan to keep the market stable is expected to be published at the end of 2026.

On 21 October 2025, the Prime Minister of Australia signed a deal with the President of the United States over rare earths and other important materials needed for clean energy and advanced military equipment. They each agreed to provide at least US$1bn (A$1.54bn) towards projects worth $US8.5bn (A$13bn) in both countries over six months.

Vietnam

Vietnam signed an agreement in October 2010 to sell rare earths to Japan from its northwestern Lai Châu Province, but the deal did not happen because of disagreements. One of the places is Mau Xe North.

United States

The biggest rare-earth deposit in the United States is at Mountain Pass, California, sixty miles south of Las Vegas. It has been mined, on and off, since 1951.

Another big place in Elk Creek in Nebraska is being considered by NioCorp Development Ltd for a mine that could make a lot of special metals each year. As of 2022, they are still working on getting money for it.

In 2024 American Rare Earths Inc. said it has a huge amount of rare earths near Wheatland Wyoming, possibly the world's largest, bigger than another deposit in Wyoming.

After China said new limits on rare earths in 2025, the U.S. has been looking for other places to get them. On 20 October 2025, President Trump signed a deal with the Prime Minister of Australia over rare earths and other important materials needed for clean energy and advanced military equipment. They each agreed to provide at least US$1bn (A$1.54bn) towards projects worth $US8.5bn (A$13bn) in both the US and Australian projects over six months.

Greenland

In 2010, a big find of rare-earth minerals was discovered in Kvanefjeld in southern Greenland, which is part of Denmark. Tests show it has a lot of materials that contain about 1% rare-earth oxides. The European Union has asked Greenland to not let China develop rare-earth projects there, but as of early 2013, Greenland's government said it has no plans to stop such projects. Some Danish politicians worry that other countries, including China, could become influential in Greenland because of the possible workers and money from Chinese companies.

Tanzania

In February 2012, an Australian company said their project in Tanzania had not only the 6th largest amount by weight but also the highest quality of rare-earth elements of the 6.

South Africa

A mine in South Africa, Steenkampskraal, is considered to have the highest quality rare earths and thorium. It closed in 1963 but is getting ready to start again. In September 2025, South Africa gave money for the first step of getting it ready. The mine is expected to work for about 28 years.

Canada

As of 2006, a project in northern Canada at Hoidas Lake was being developed. It was thought that this project could supply about 10% of the rare earths used in North America each year.

Sites like Thor Lake in the Northwest Territories are being looked at for mining.

Other countries

European Union

As of 2025, no rare earth elements are mined in the European Union, with only one processing facility owned by a Canadian company. Although there are deposits within the EU and European companies are starting to develop new mines, the processes to get permits take a long time and cost a lot. EU countries import almost all of their rare earth elements from China. The European Union Parliament sees this as a big risk.

Japan

In May 2012, researchers from Japan found rare earths in Ehime Prefecture, Japan.

Madagascar

A company got permission to mine rare earths on a large part of the Ampasindava Peninsula on the northwest coast of Madagascar. As of 2025, the company is Harena Resources, and the site has a lot of rare earths.

Malaysia

In early 2011, an Australian company was getting ready to finish a rare-earth factory on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. It was expected to meet nearly a third of the world's demand for rare-earth materials, not counting China. This brought attention to Bukit Merah in Perak, where an old rare-earth mine closed in 1994 and left environmental and health issues. In mid-2011, after protests, the Malaysian government put limits on the Lynas plant. An independent review by the International Atomic Energy Agency in 2011 said it followed safety rules. After delays, in September 2014 Lynas got a full operating license.

In November 2024, the economy minister said he hoped Malaysia would start making rare-earth elements in three years, with help from China for technology. There are worries that mining in Kedah could hurt forests and water areas.

Myanmar

Rare earths were found near Pang War in Chipwi Township along the China–Myanmar border in the late 2010s.

China imports rare earths from Myanmar. In 2021, China bought US$200 million of rare earths from Myanmar, more than 20,000 metric tons, mostly from Kachin State, after closing its own mines because of environmental problems. Chinese companies and miners have been setting up operations in Kachin State without permission, working with a militia group. As of March 2022, there were many mining places in Kachin State.

North Korea

North Korea has been reported to have sold rare-earth ore to China, about US$1.88 million worth in May and June 2014.

Norway

In June 2024, a company in Norway found a big amount of rare-earth oxides, making it Europe's largest known rare-earth element deposit. The company expects to start the first stage of mining in 2030.

Spain

In central Spain, a proposed mining project called 'Matamulas' might provide up to 2,100 tonnes per year, which is 33% of the EU's yearly need. However, this project has been stopped by local authorities because of social and environmental concerns.

Sweden

In January 2023, a Swedish mining company said it found over 1 million metric tons of rare earths in the Kiruna area, which would be the largest such deposit in Europe.

Ukraine

Ukraine has significant rare earth deposits, which have been important in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and peace talks.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, a company called Pensana has started building a rare-earth processing plant. It will get materials from the Longonjo mine in Angola and other places. The company plans to start production in late 2023 and reach full capacity in 2024. They aim to make 12,500 metric tons of separated rare earths, including 4,500 metric tons of magnet metal rare earths.

Non-mining REE sources

Mine tailings

Big amounts of rare-earth oxides are found in leftover materials from years of mining uranium ore, shale, and loparite at Sillamäe in Estonia. Because rare earths are now more valuable, it has become possible to get them from these materials. The country exports around 3,000 metric tons each year, which is about 2% of world production. Similar resources might be in the western United States, where old gold mines might have thrown away rare earths. Mining tailings have been found to add rare earths to local soil and water, which can be harmful to the environment and health.

Ocean mining

In January 2013, a Japanese research ship got samples from the Pacific Ocean seafloor, about 250 kilometres south of Minami-Tori-Shima. The team found a layer of mud under the seafloor with up to 0.66% rare-earth oxides. This might be as good as some mines in China.

Waste and recycling

Another new source of rare earths is from old electronic devices and other wastes that have rare earths. Better recycling technology has made it cheaper to get rare earths from these materials. Recycling plants work in Japan, where there are thought to be 300,000 tons of rare earths in old electronics. In France, a company is setting up factories to make 200 tons of rare earths each year from old fluorescent lights, magnets, and batteries. Coal and coal products, like ash and sludge, might also have rare earths, with estimated amounts of about 50 million metric tons.

Uses

The uses, applications, and demand for rare-earth elements have expanded over the years. Globally, most rare-earth elements were being used for catalysts and magnets in 2015. In the US, more than half of rare-earth elements are used for catalysts; ceramics, glass, and polishing are also main uses. The global move towards renewable energy technologies, along with advanced electronics and new applications in defence applications has caused increased demand for rare-earth elements.

Rare earth metals are used in magnesium alloys, cast iron, and ductile cast irons. Ceria is a key abrasive for fine glass polishing and chemical mechanical planarization. Luminescence applications take advantage of the unpaired electrons emission of a photon after being excited from their fundamental state. The rare earth elements are widely used in applications where light emission is a criterion of performance. Phosphor lighting devices and displays include trichromatic lamps (or energy-saving lamps), where lanthanum, yttrium, cerium, terbium, and europium are mainly used to control the color, Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), using mainly yttrium, cerium, and europium, plasma displays, old cathode-ray tubes (CRTs), and liquid crystal displays (LCDs) with fluorescent backlighting, consuming lanthanum, yttrium, cerium, terbium, and europium.

Ce, La, and Nd are important in alloy-making, and in the production of fuel cells and nickel-metal hydride batteries. Ce, Ga, and Nd are important in electronics and are used in the production of LCD and plasma screens, fiber optics, and lasers, and in medical imaging. Consumer electronics boost demand, with items such as smartphones absorbing a portion of global rare-earth element consumption.

Rare-earth elements also have applications in defence, such as with precision-guided systems, which require special compounds of rare-earth elements. The strength of neodynium magnets can be used in missile guidance systems. For high-end camera lenses used for intelligence, lanthanum enhances the clarity of the glass.

Issues

Geopolitical issues

China controls most of the world's supply of rare-earth elements. This control affects many industries that rely on these materials. In the past, China has sometimes limited exports to manage its own needs or respond to international disputes.

Dominance of China

China has a strong hold on the processing and refining of rare-earth elements. This means that many countries depend on China for these important materials. China's leaders have emphasized the strategic importance of these resources. For example, after a dispute involving a Chinese fishing boat and Japan, there were reports—though later denied—of China limiting exports to Japan. China has also reduced export amounts over the years, citing environmental reasons, but some believe it also aims to support its own manufacturers.

Import reliance

The United States has identified dysprosium as a critical element due to its heavy reliance on imports. This reliance makes the supply of these materials a concern for many industries.

Import source diversification

Efforts have been made to find new sources of rare-earth elements beyond China. For example, the United States has explored areas in Afghanistan where volcanic rocks may contain these elements. This search for new sources aims to reduce dependence on a single country.

Mining in the United States

In 1996, the United States closed its Bureau of Mines, which slowed down domestic mining and research of rare-earth elements. This closure made the U.S. more dependent on imports for these materials.

Environmental issues

Mining rare-earth elements can harm the environment if not done carefully. Extracting these elements often creates large amounts of waste, some of which can be harmful. This waste can pollute land and water, affecting both nature and human health.

Mining can also lead to the release of radioactive materials, which need to be handled safely to avoid contamination. In some places, mining has caused serious environmental damage, requiring expensive cleanup efforts.

Complications of recycling and reusing REEs

Although old electronics and other items contain rare-earth elements, recycling these materials is challenging. Current methods can harm the environment, and improving recycling efficiency is an ongoing effort. Researchers are exploring new ways to recover these elements from waste, such as from used batteries and coal ash, which could reduce the need for mining and lessen environmental impact.

Impact of REE contamination

Rare-earth elements are now recognized as potential environmental contaminants. Their presence in soil and water can affect plants, animals, and humans, though the full extent of these effects is still being studied.

On vegetation

Mining rare-earth elements has polluted soil and water near production sites, affecting plant growth. Plants absorb these elements differently, and some, like apples and beets, are more likely to store them. This pollution can also spread to water bodies, where aquatic plants may absorb the elements and pass them along in the food chain.

On human health

Rare-earth elements behave similarly in the body, and long-term exposure can affect health. While they are not highly toxic, inhaling dust containing high levels of these elements over time has been linked to lung problems. Some rare-earth elements used in medical treatments have been associated with issues in development, reproduction, and kidney function.

People living near mining areas often have higher levels of these elements in their bodies, likely due to contaminated water, soil, and food. However, these levels have not yet reached amounts known to cause serious health problems. More research is needed to understand the risks when levels in the environment exceed normal background amounts.

On animal health

Studies with rats have shown that certain rare-earth elements can build up in the lungs and liver, leading to health problems. These elements have also been linked to DNA damage in laboratory tests. In animals, rare-earth elements can affect growth, reproduction, and overall health, depending on the dose and exposure duration.

Some research suggests that small amounts of these elements in food or water may benefit animals, such as improving growth or milk production. However, higher doses can cause harm, particularly in the organs where the elements accumulate.

Remediation after pollution

After a serious pollution incident in Malaysia in 1982, a large cleanup effort began to remove contaminated materials. Following the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011, protests arose in Malaysia over concerns about a refinery processing materials that might contain small amounts of radioactive elements. International investigations were conducted to ensure safety standards were met before operations continued.

In popular culture

A famous book from 1967 named Dirty Story, written by Eric Ambler, tells a story about two groups of miners who are fighting over a piece of land in an imaginary African country. This land has lots of rare-earth ores, which are special materials that are important for many things.

The book should not be mixed up with another movie also called This Gun for Hire that came out in 1942.