Second Polish Republic

The Second Polish Republic, officially called the Republic of Poland, was a country that existed from October 7, 1918, until October 6, 1939. It was created near the end of World War I and was taken over by Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and the Slovak Republic in 1939, which started the European theatre of the Second World War. After this, the Polish government-in-exile was set up in Paris and later in London.

By 1922, after several conflicts including the Polish-Soviet war, Poland's borders were set. It shared borders with Czechoslovakia, Germany, the Free City of Danzig, Lithuania, Latvia, Romania, and the Soviet Union. Poland had a small coastline on the Baltic Sea called the Polish Corridor near the city of Gdynia. In 1938, Poland was the sixth largest country in Europe, with about 25.7 million people in 1921 and around 35.1 million by 1939. Almost a third of these people were from minority groups, including Ukrainians, Ashkenazi Jews, Belarusians, Germans, Czechs, and Lithuanians.

Poland had steady economic growth during this time. Important cultural centers like Warsaw, Kraków, Poznań, Wilno, and Lwów became big European cities with famous universities and other schools. Even though many Polish Jews supported the leader Józef Piłsudski, after his death in 1935, the government began treating Jewish, Ukrainian, and Belarusian citizens unfairly, making it harder for them to get jobs and run businesses.

Name

The official name of the state was the Republic of Poland. In the Polish language, it was called Rzeczpospolita Polska (abbr. RP), with the word Rzeczpospolita being a traditional name for the republic used for different Polish states, like the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (called the First Polish Republic, Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita) and later the Third Polish Republic.

Between November 1918 and March 1919, the country was called Republika Polska in Polish, instead of Rzeczpospolita Polska. Both words mean the Republic, but republika is a general word, while Rzeczpospolita only refers to Polish states. Also, between November 1918 and August 1919, official documents called the country the State of Poland (Polish: Państwo Polskie).

After the Second World War and the creation of the later Polish People's Republic and the Third Polish Republic, this historical state became known as the Second Polish Republic. In Polish, it is traditionally called II Rzeczpospolita (Druga Rzeczpospolita), meaning the Second Republic.

Background

Main articles: History of Poland (1918–1939) and Timeline of Polish history § The Second Polish Republic (1918–1939)

After many years when Poland was split among three big powers, Poland became a country again at the end of World War I in 1918. The winners of that war agreed to let Poland be free in a big meeting called the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Poland had to fight many small wars to keep its land safe from its neighbors. By 1922, Poland's borders were finally set, and it was recognized by other countries.

During World War I, German forces took control of parts of Poland. They tried to set up their own rule there, but after Germany lost the war, Poland declared its independence on October 7, 1918. Many groups in Poland wanted to help build the new country. In November 1918, a leader named Józef Piłsudski came back to Warsaw and became the main leader of Poland. New governments were formed, and Poland got support from other countries like Italy. Poland also had to fight wars with neighbors like Ukraine, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, and the Soviet Union to protect its land. The biggest of these wars was against the Soviet Union, which Poland won.

Politics and government

The Second Polish Republic was a parliamentary democracy from 1919 to 1926. The President had limited powers. The Parliament elected the President, who could appoint the Prime Minister and the government with approval from the lower house, called the Sejm. Women in Poland were among the first in the world to gain the right to vote, which happened in 1918.

After a military coup in 1926, Marshal Piłsudski took control. He wanted to reduce extreme political fighting. Some later elections were controlled to favor his supporters. After Piłsudski's death in 1935, other leaders took over.

Military

Poland required citizens to join the military at age 21. By 1939, Poland had around 270,000 active soldiers and nearly one million when the war began. The army trained well but had older equipment. The air force grew but faced challenges, and the navy included various ships, using ports like Gdynia because Gdańsk was not available.

Economy

After Poland became independent again, it faced big economic problems. The country had to fix many issues left from World War I, like damaged buildings and different economic systems from past rulers. Poland had five different kinds of money and needed to connect towns that had been separated for years.

In 1924, Poland created a new money called the złoty to help control prices and make trade easier. This helped Poland grow, but it still had trouble with neighbors and trade. Poland also built new factories and roads to improve its economy, but these plans were stopped when World War II began.

Education and culture

Main articles: Polish culture in the Interbellum and Volhynia Experiment

In 1919, Poland started making school mandatory for children aged 7 to 14 to help everyone learn to read and write. Many people still couldn't read or write back then, but by 1939, most children went to school.

Poland had many universities and schools. Famous scientists and writers lived there, and theatre was very popular. Poland also began joining the Olympics in 1924.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative division of the Second Polish Republic

The Second Polish Republic was divided into three levels of local governments. The smallest were called gminy, which were like small town or village areas. These gminy were grouped into powiaty, similar to counties. Finally, the powiaty were grouped into larger areas called województwa, or voivodeships, which were like provinces. This way of organizing the country is still used today in Poland.

Demographics

Historically, Poland was a country where many different groups of people lived together. This was especially true after Poland became independent again near the end of the First World War. By 1921, about 30.8% of Poland's people were from groups other than Polish.

In 1931, most people in Poland were Polish (about 69%), but there were also many Ukrainians (14%), Jewish people (around 10%), Belarusians (3%), Germans (2%), and others including Lithuanians, Czechs, Armenians, Russians, and Romani. Poland was also a place where people followed many different religions. Most people were Roman (Latin) Catholics, but there were also many Eastern Rite Catholics, Orthodox, Jewish people, and Protestants like Lutherans.

By the late 1930s, more people were moving to cities. Warsaw, Łódź, and Poznań were growing quickly because families were having many children and people were moving to cities for jobs.

Largest cities in the Second Polish Republic

Prewar population density

Status of ethnic minorities

Jews

During the 1920s and 1930s, the Polish government made it harder for Jewish people to get loans, jobs in the public sector, and business licenses. Jewish shops and businesses faced restrictions, and there were limits on how many Jewish students could attend university. Some political groups organized protests against Jewish businesses. After the death of a key leader in 1935, these groups became more active, leading to some violent incidents in small towns. By 1939, just before the war began, conditions for Jewish people in Poland were becoming very difficult, similar to those in some other countries at the time.

Ukrainians

In some areas of Poland, the government made it challenging for Ukrainian people to have their rights recognized. Ukrainian language use was limited, especially in government offices. The term “Ruthenian” was used instead of “Ukrainian” to avoid recognizing Ukrainian identity. Ukrainian people were often treated as less educated and faced many restrictions. Efforts to support Ukrainian independence were stopped, and the government tried to encourage some Ukrainians to adopt Polish culture and religion.

Geography

The Second Polish Republic was mostly flat land with an average height of 233 meters above sea level. The southern part had the Carpathian Mountains, where the highest point was Mount Rysy, reaching 2,499 meters. The biggest lake in the country was Lake Narach.

The country covered an area of 389,720 square kilometers. It stretched 903 kilometers from north to south and 894 kilometers from east to west. Poland had borders with many nations, including the Soviet Union, Germany, and Czechoslovakia. The warmest place was Kraków, while the coldest was Wilno.

Invasion of Poland in 1939

Main article: List of World War II military equipment of Poland

In September 1939, World War II began, and the Second Polish Republic came to an end. Germany started its attack on Poland on September 1, 1939, after signing an agreement with the Soviet Union. That same day, Germany and Slovakia attacked Poland, and on September 17, the Soviet Union also invaded eastern Poland. Warsaw, Poland's capital, fell to Germany on September 28 after a long siege. By October 6, 1939, organized Polish resistance had ended, and Germany and the Soviet Union controlled most of the country. Poland never officially surrendered, and its government continued to lead from outside the country.

Polish military plans did not work as expected once Germany attacked. Many Polish soldiers were captured, and both German and Soviet forces suffered losses. A popular story says that Polish cavalry charged German tanks with lances, but this is not true. It started from a small battle where Polish cavalry surprised German soldiers, but it was not a major event against tanks. After the war, Poland's government continued to operate from far away until 1990 when it passed its duties to the new government.