Interwar period

The interwar period lasted from November 11, 1918, to September 1, 1939. It began when World War I ended and finished when World War II started. Though it was only about 20 years long, this time brought many big changes around the world.

During the Roaring Twenties, new inventions like automobiles, electric lights, and radios changed everyday life. People, especially in the middle class, enjoyed new freedoms and wealth. But this prosperity ended with the Great Depression, a severe worldwide economic crash that hurt many countries.

Politically, this period saw the rise of new governments. Communism began in Russia after the October Revolution, and later, strong leaders called fascists came to power in places like Germany and Italy. Many countries faced challenges as people in colonies demanded independence, and old empires broke apart. New nations such as the Soviet Union, Estonia, Finland, and Latvia were formed.

The interwar years also saw fast advances in military technology. New ideas about using tanks, airplanes, and ships changed how wars were fought. These changes helped shape the way wars were planned and fought in World War II and beyond.

Turmoil in Europe

Main article: Aftermath of World War I

Further information: European interwar economy

After World War I ended in November 1918, Europe had many problems. The Russian Civil War was still going on, and parts of Eastern Europe were healing from the war's damage. Big empires like Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire broke apart. This led to new countries such as Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

During this time, the United States became important in world finance. When Germany could not pay war reparations to Britain and France, American leaders made the Dawes Plan. American money helped Germany recover. This support led to a time of growth and prosperity called the Roaring Twenties.

International relations

Main article: International relations (1919–1939)

The years between World War I and World War II were busy with changes in how countries worked together. Leaders tried to solve problems left over from the war, like money that Germany owed and where borders should be. New countries were forming, and many were unsure how to get along with older nations. There was talk about making the world safer by reducing weapons, but not all countries agreed.

The world faced big challenges, such as the Great Depression, which made life harder for many people and hurt trade between countries. Some leaders, like those in Germany, Italy, and Japan, became aggressive and wanted more land. There were disagreements, like between Japan and China, and Italy moving into parts of Africa. These tensions made it harder to keep peace.

Roaring Twenties

Main articles: 1920s, Roaring Twenties, Golden Twenties, and Années folles

The Roaring Twenties was a time of new and fun ways to live. The economy was good, and big cities like New York City, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, and London showed these changes. Music like jazz became popular, and a new style called Art Deco was seen everywhere. Women started wearing shorter clothes and cutting their hair, and these women were called flappers.

Many countries let women vote during this time, including Canada and the United States. Most places became richer, and families could buy new things like radios and cars. Life changed a lot, with more focus on famous people and fun places to visit.

Great Depression

Main article: Great Depression

The Great Depression was a very serious and long-lasting problem that began after 1929. It started in the United States when the stock market crashed on a day called Black Tuesday. This event caused the problem to spread all around the world. During this time, many people lost their jobs, and it was very hard for everyone. In the United States, many workers had no jobs, and in some other countries, even more people were out of work. Prices for things like food and goods dropped a lot, and it was difficult for many cities and farms to survive.

The Great Depression caused big changes in many countries. In Germany, it led to serious problems and the rise of a strict and powerful government. In Japan, it made the country more aggressive, especially toward China. Many people lost trust in their governments and democratic systems because of the hard times.

The rise of fascism

Main articles: Fascism and European interwar dictatorships

When the economy was struggling, many people in Europe and Latin America lost faith in their democratic governments. As a result, powerful and strict leaders took control in several countries, including Italy, Germany, Japan, and others. These leaders believed in strong actions and often ignored the rights and needs of their people. This period was very difficult for many people and led to serious problems around the world.

Empire of Japan

Main articles: Empire of Japan, Japanese colonial empire, List of territories occupied by Imperial Japan, and Statism in Shōwa Japan

Japan built its industries by copying the most advanced Western countries. It started with making clothes, building railways, and shipping goods, and later added electricity and machines. But Japan had a big problem: it lacked many important raw materials like copper and coal and needed to import most of its oil, aluminium, and iron.

During World War I, Japan joined the Allies and gained some small islands from Germany. However, Japan’s attempts to control more of China were blocked by other countries. By the 1930s, Japan’s government changed dramatically. Democracy weakened, and the military took control. Japan also moved away from working with other nations and joined a group of powerful countries led by Germany and Italy.

Japan seizes Manchuria

Main article: Japanese invasion of Manchuria

In 1931, Japanese soldiers took over Manchuria in China and set up a new government there. Other countries said this was wrong, and Japan left an international group of nations called the League of Nations.

Towards the conquest of China

Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War

Fighting between Japan and China grew into a big war in 1937. Japan took many cities, but faced strong resistance. The war continued for many years, with Japan controlling most major Chinese cities by 1939. Meanwhile, Japan also fought battles against the Soviet Union but eventually signed a peace agreement in 1941.

Spain

Main articles: Second Spanish Republic and Francoist Spain

Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)

Main article: Spanish Civil War

Spain had problems with its government for many years. From 1936 to 1939, it had a very serious fight called the Spanish Civil War. During this time, people who wanted to keep old ways and the church fought against the new government.

Italy and Germany helped the group that wanted to change things back. The government got help from the Soviet Union and Mexico. Many countries, like Britain, France, and the United States, chose not to help either side because they were worried the fight might spread.

The war had many small battles and was hard for everyone. In the end, the group led by General Franco won in 1939. Even though the war didn’t become a bigger fight across Europe, it showed that many people were worried about another big war coming soon.

Great Britain and British Empire

Main articles: Interwar Britain and War Plan Red

The world changed a lot after World War I. The United States and Japan became strong sea powers. This made Britain change its policies. In 1922, Britain signed a treaty to have equal naval power with the United States.

India helped Britain during World War I and hoped for more self-rule, but Britain did not give it. Tensions grew, especially in the Punjab region. Many people in India began to push for independence, led by Mohandas Gandhi. In Egypt, Britain allowed the country to become independent in 1922. Iraq also became independent in 1932.

In Palestine, Britain had to balance the needs of Arab people and Jewish settlers. This caused conflicts. As World War II approached, Britain decided to support the Arab people more.

The Dominions like Canada, Australia, and South Africa gained more control over their own policies. By 1931, they were officially allowed to make their own foreign policies. Ireland fully became independent from Britain in 1937.

French Empire

Main articles: Interwar France and French colonial empire

In 1938, the French Empire had a population of over 150 million people. Outside of France itself, about 102.8 million people lived across 13.5 million square kilometers. Most people lived in Africa and Asia. Smaller groups lived in the French West Indies and islands in the South Pacific.

The largest areas of the empire were French Indochina, French Algeria, the French protectorate in Morocco, and French West Africa.

Revolt in North Africa against Spain and France

Main article: Rif War

A leader named Abd el-Krim organized resistance against Spanish and French control in Morocco. In 1921, Spanish forces lost a battle. El-Krim created an independent area called the Rif Republic. France and Spain worked together to end the resistance. They sent many soldiers, and el-Krim finally agreed to stop fighting in 1926. After this, Morocco was under control again.

Germany

Main article: History of Germany

Weimar Republic

Main article: Weimar Republic

After World War I, Germany had to follow new rules set by other countries. These rules, from the Treaty of Versailles, made many Germans unhappy. Germany lost some land, including colonies far away and areas close to home like Alsace–Lorraine. The country could not have a strong army, navy, or air force, and had to pay a lot of money to other nations, called reparations.

When Germany could not pay these payments, French and Belgian soldiers entered a key industrial area called the Ruhr in 1923. The German government told people there to stop working, which caused big money problems and led to hyperinflation. This meant that savings lost their value quickly. During this time, different groups like Nazis, Nationalists, and Communists often fought.

Germany was the first country to make friends with the new Soviet Union. In 1925, Germany signed the Treaty of Locarno with France, Belgium, Britain, and Italy, which helped Germany join the League of Nations in 1926.

Nazi era, 1933–1939

Main articles: Nazi Germany and Causes of World War II

Further information: German rearmament

In January 1933, Adolf Hitler became leader of Germany. He wanted Germany to be very strong and powerful in Europe. Hitler’s way of getting what he wanted was to make demands and threaten war if they were not met. Germany left the League of Nations, ignored the Versailles Treaty, and started building up its military again.

Germany took back areas like the Territory of the Saar Basin after a vote. Then, Hitler's Germany remilitarised the Rhineland, made an alliance with Italy called the Pact of Steel, and helped a country called Spain during its civil war. In 1938, Germany seized Austria, and later took over parts of Czechoslovakia after an agreement with Britain and France called the Munich Agreement. In 1939, Germany made a deal with the Soviet Union and then invaded Poland, which led to the start of World War II.

After forming a strong alliance with Italy known as the "Rome-Berlin Axis" and making a pact with Japan, Hitler moved forward with his plans. In 1938, German troops entered Austria, where many people welcomed him. Soon after, Austria officially joined Germany. Next, Hitler turned his attention to Czechoslovakia, where many people of German background lived.

At the Munich Conference in 1938, leaders agreed that Czechoslovakia should give some land to Germany. But just a few months later, in 1939, Hitler took the rest of Czechoslovakia. He also took a small area called Memel from Lithuania. This showed that the efforts to keep peace with Hitler did not work.

Italy

Main article: Fascist Italy

Further information: Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Italian invasion of Albania, and History of Greece (1924–1941)

In 1922, Benito Mussolini became Prime Minister of Italy after the March on Rome. He made agreements in 1923 to control islands like the Dodecanese Islands and places such as Libya.

Mussolini wanted Italy to become stronger and control more land near the Mediterranean Sea. He talked about Italy needing to reach the Indian Oceans to be independent. Italy also wanted to control parts of the Balkans, like Albania, Slovenia, and Croatia. In 1935, Italy went to war with Ethiopia and took it over. Later, in 1939, Italy invaded and took control of Albania.

Soviet Union

After World War I, Russia and Poland fought a war from 1919 to 1921. Poland won.

In 1922, the Soviet Union was created and Vladimir Lenin became its leader. When Lenin died in 1924, Joseph Stalin took over. Stalin started a plan called the Five Year Plan. This plan took property from people and moved many to special settlements.

In the early 1930s, a big famine happened in Ukraine, called the Holodomor. Many people suffered, though we do not know exactly how many.

Regional patterns

Balkans

The Great Depression caused problems for the Kingdom of Romania. In the early 1930s, there were protests, high unemployment, and strikes. By the mid-1930s, Romania's economy got better, but most people still worked in agriculture. France helped at first, but Germany became more powerful later.

In the Albanian Kingdom, leader Zog I changed some laws and tried to improve land use, but these changes did not work well. Albania became more dependent on Italy, which had a lot of influence over the country.

China

Main articles: Republic of China (1912–1949), Warlord Era, Nanjing decade, and Chinese Civil War

Latin America

The United States had soldiers in several Latin American countries, like Cuba, Panama, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua. The Great Depression made it hard for these countries because they sold fewer raw materials. Leaders in Latin America decided to build their own industries to not rely on other countries. The Roosevelt administration supported this with a Good Neighbor policy. For example, Mexico's president Lázaro Cárdenas took control of oil companies and shared land with people. The Platt Amendment was ended, allowing Cuba to manage its own politics. During this time, the United States was concerned about German influence in Latin America, especially in the south where many German communities lived. Intellectuals in Latin America also talked about ideas about their culture and identity.

Sports

Sports became very popular during this time. Many fans filled large stadiums to watch games. The International Olympic Committee worked to promote the Olympics and get more people involved. After games in Rio de Janeiro in 1922, the IOC helped create groups in different countries for future Olympic events. But in Brazil, groups disagreed about who should manage international sport.

The 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris and the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam had many more athletes from Latin America.

Soccer grew around the world. It was brought to Brazil by engineers from England and Scotland in the late 1800s. Groups like the International Committee of the YMCA of North America and the Playground Association of America helped train coaches. After 1912, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) led soccer as a global sport. They worked with groups from many countries, made rules, and started big tournaments like the World Cup.