Soviet–Afghan War

The Soviet–Afghan War took place in Afghanistan from December 1979 to February 1989. It was the start of the 47-year-long Afghan conflict. The Soviet Union and the Communist-led Afghan military fought against the rebels, called the Afghan mujahideen. The mujahideen received help from several countries and groups. Most of their outside help came from Pakistan, the United States (as part of Operation Cyclone), the United Kingdom, China, Iran, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. Many foreign fighters, known as the Afghan Arabs, also joined them. The involvement of America and Britain on the side of the mujahideen made the Cold War more intense. It also ended a short time of friendlier Soviet Union–United States relations.

Fighting went on through the 1980s, mostly in the countryside, because most of the country's cities stayed under Soviet control. Many Afghans were killed, and millions more were forced to leave their homes and flee from the country as refugees. Most of these families went to Pakistan and Iran to find safety. The fighting caused great damage across Afghanistan. Scholars say the war was an important reason for the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. For this reason, some people call it "the Soviet Union's Vietnam."

A violent uprising broke out in Herat in March 1979. The ruling People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) could not stop the uprising on its own, so it asked the Soviet Union for urgent military help. Soviet premier Alexei Kosygin did not send troops. In one phone call, he advised Afghan prime minister Nur Muhammad Taraki to use local factory workers in the region. Soviet leaders talked about the matter for a long time. Some wanted to keep Afghanistan a socialist state, while others worried the unrest would grow. In the end, they agreed to send military aid, but not troops.

The war began when the Soviet military, under the command of Leonid Brezhnev, moved into Afghanistan to support the Afghan government that had been put in place during Operation Storm-333. The Muslim world and the Western Bloc called this an invasion. The Eastern Bloc said it was a legal intervention. Even so, the international community soon placed many sanctions and embargoes on the Soviet Union. Soviet troops controlled Afghanistan's major cities and main roads. The mujahideen fought in small guerrilla groups across the countryside, which covers about 80% of the country and has rough, mountainous land. The Soviets also laid many landmines and used their air power against both the resistance and ordinary people. They destroyed villages and important irrigation ditches so the mujahideen would have no safe places to hide, using a tactic called scorched earth.

The Soviet government first planned to secure Afghanistan's towns and roads quickly and bring its forces home within a year. However, Afghan guerrillas fought hard, and the mountains made things very difficult. By the mid-1980s, about 115,000 Soviet troops were in Afghanistan, and the fighting grew more intense. The war slowly became very costly for the Soviet Union. By mid-1987, the reform-minded Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, announced a complete withdrawal from Afghanistan. On 15 February 1989, the last Soviet military column crossed into the Uzbek SSR. The PDPA government kept fighting with continued Soviet support, and this period became the first Afghan Civil War (1989–1992). After the Soviet Union dissolved in December 1991, support for the government stopped. The mujahideen overthrew it in 1992, which started a second Afghan Civil War (1992–1996).

For other conflicts involving the Soviet Union and Afghanistan, see Soviet–Afghan War (disambiguation).

Naming

In Afghanistan, people usually call the war the Soviet war in Afghanistan. In Pashto, it is written as Pə Afğānistān ke də Šurawi Jang. In Dari, it is written as Jang-i Šūrawī dar Afğānistān. The romanized spelling uses letters that English speakers can read.

In Russia and other former Soviet countries, the war is usually called the Afghan war. In Russian, it is written as "Афганская война." In Ukrainian, it is written as "Війна в Афганістані." In Belarusian, it is written as "Афганская вайна." In Uzbek, it is written as Afgʻon urushi. People also sometimes just say "Afgan," which means the war. This is a bit like how the Vietnam War is often called "Vietnam" or "'Nam" in the United States. The war is also known as the Afghan Jihad, especially by volunteers from outside Afghanistan who fought with the Mujahideen.

Background

In the 1800s, the British Empire worried that the Russian Empire would invade Afghanistan and threaten the British colonies in India. This rivalry was called the "Great Game." After Afghanistan became fully independent from Britain in 1919, its king, Amanullah Khan, became friendly with Russia, which was then ruled by the Bolshevik party. The Soviet Union gave Afghanistan money, military help, training centers, and weapons. Over time, the Soviets also became interested in Afghanistan's energy resources. In 1947, Afghanistan's prime minister, Mohammad Daoud Khan, rejected the Durand Line, the border that Pakistan had inherited from British India. Daoud later took power in 1973 in a bloodless coup. His government started to fight against Pakistan through proxy warring. The Soviet Union supported Daoud's actions, but later Daoud relied less on the Soviets.

In 1978, the Marxist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) overthrew Daoud, and he was killed. The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was formed. The new government, led by Nur Muhammad Taraki, used harsh methods against its opponents, and many people were harmed. Many Afghans rose up in rebellion, and the Afghan Army began to fall apart. In September 1979, Hafizullah Amin took power and had Taraki arrested and killed. The Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev had warned against full Soviet involvement, and Pakistani officials and the United States began thinking about ways to support the rebels. In July 1979, President Carter approved a small amount of non-military aid to the Afghan opposition.

Soviet deployment, 1979

Further information: History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)

In December 1978, the Amin government signed a treaty that allowed it to ask for Soviet forces. It asked for Soviet troops many times in 1979. It wanted help with security and with the fight against the mujahideen ("Those engaged in jihad") rebels. After angry crowds in Herat killed Soviet technicians, the Soviet government sold several Mi-24 helicopters to the Afghan military. In June 1979, the Soviet government sent tanks, BMPs, and crews to protect the government in Kabul and to secure the Bagram and Shindand air bases. In July, an airborne battalion arrived at Bagram. The soldiers did not carry combat gear and were dressed as technical specialists. Their job was to act as personal bodyguards for General Secretary Taraki. Some leaders, such as Alexei Kosygin and Andrei Gromyko, opposed sending troops. Kosygin warned that Parcham leaders were being killed under Taraki and Amin. Soviet leaders believed that the actions of Prime Minister Hafizullah Amin, including his takeover from Taraki, had made Afghanistan unstable. A special commission was formed. It included KGB chairman Yuri Andropov, Boris Ponomarev from the Central Committee, and Dmitry Ustinov, the Minister of Defence.

At first, Moscow did not want to send troops. However, the situation got worse through 1979, and its view changed. Later, people gave several reasons. They included fears about the Iranian Revolution, worries about contacts with the American embassy in Kabul, and worsening ties with the United States. Tensions grew after NATO's two-track missile deployment decision and the failure of Congress to approve the SALT II treaty. These events made détente seem "already effectively dead." Soviet leaders also believed that Amin's government had lost support across Afghanistan. In the fall of 1979, a battalion of Central Asian troops was secretly sent to Kabul and then moved to the Tajbeg Palace. Leonid Brezhnev was undecided. Andrei Gromyko, Yuri Andropov, and Dmitry Ustinov pushed hardest for an invasion. They worried that a radical Islamist regime could spread into Soviet Central Asia. They planned a short mission to replace Amin with Babrak Karmal. Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov warned of a long guerrilla war, but his concerns were set aside. Information from Narkomindel diplomats and KGB officers in Afghanistan rarely reached the decision-makers.

Soviet invasion and palace coup

Main article: Operation Baikal-79

On 25 December 1979, the Soviet 40th Army crossed into Afghanistan. The Soviet Union said it was bringing "international aid" to the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Soviet Defence Minister Dmitry Ustinov had ordered the crossing. Soviet troops reached Kabul International Airport on 27 December. That night, about 700 Soviet soldiers took over important government, military and media buildings in Kabul. Some wore Afghan uniforms. KGB and GRU special forces officers were also among them. Their main target was the Tajbeg Palace, where Afghan leader Hafizullah Amin was killed. By the morning of 28 December, the takeover was complete. The Soviet military then announced on Radio Kabul that Afghanistan had been "liberated" from Amin's rule. Babrak Karmal was made head of government. Soviet forces in the country grew to over 100,000 people.

The invasion surprised and upset many countries. On 9 January 1980, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 462. On 15 January, the UN General Assembly voted 104–18 to protest the Soviet action. In the United States, President Carter took the SALT-II treaty out of consideration in the Senate. He also placed a trade ban on the Soviet Union. He led a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, which 66 nations joined. China also criticised the invasion. Deng Xiaoping praised the "heroic resistance" of the Afghan people. Many Afghans did not want Soviet forces in their country, and fighting spread across the land. Soviet forces struggled to bring calm. The United States, Saudi Arabia and China together gave the Afghan fighters large amounts of military aid.

Soviet occupation, 1980–1985

See also: Panjshir offensives

The Soviets controlled the cities and main roads. The Afghan mujahideen split into small groups and fought a guerrilla war in the mountains. Almost 80 percent of the country was outside government control. Soviet troops guarded key areas, such as the road from Termez to Kabul. They also kept a strong presence in the west to counter Iranian influence. Some areas, like Nuristan and Hazarajat, were almost untouched by the fighting. Nine Soviet offensives into the Panjshir Valley between 1980 and 1985 did not improve government control there. Fighting was also constant near Pakistan. The cities of Herat and Kandahar were always partly controlled by the resistance.

The Soviets used three main strategies against the uprising. They attacked villages from the air and the ground to force people to leave their homes. They sent spies and bribed tribes or guerrilla leaders. They also carried out military sweeps using Mil Mi-24 helicopters. The KHAD secret police, an Afghan group, gathered information and stirred up rivalries among the resistance groups. The year 1985 was a very hard year of the war. The Mujahideen suffered greatly, but they kept fighting. They were helped because thousands of new volunteers joined them every day.

Soviet exit and change of Afghan leadership, 1985–1989

Starting in 1983, Pakistan's Foreign Ministry worked with the Soviet Union to help it leave Afghanistan. Pakistan's Foreign Minister, Yaqub Ali Khan, and Khurshid Kasuri led these efforts. On 20 July 1987, the withdrawal of Soviet troops was announced. At first, the Soviet Union let Afghan forces do most of the fighting, so they could work without Soviet help. The Afghan army grew to an official strength of 302,000 in 1986, but many soldiers left their posts. The government of President Karmal, a puppet state, was weak, and Moscow later removed him from power. In May 1986, Mohammad Najibullah, a former chief of the Afghan secret police (KHAD), became General Secretary. In 1987, he started a "National Reconciliation" program, and a new constitution was passed that year. Parliamentary elections were held in 1988, the first in Afghanistan in 19 years.

Main article: Geneva Accords (1988)

In 1988, the Geneva Accords were signed between Afghanistan and Pakistan. The two countries agreed not to interfere in each other's land, and Afghan refugees in Pakistan could go home if they wanted to. The two superpowers agreed to stop interfering in Afghanistan, which included the Soviet withdrawal. The United Nations set up a special group to watch over the process.

Main article: Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan

The new leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 was likely an important reason the Soviets chose to leave. Gorbachev wanted to ease tensions with the West and improve the Soviet economy. The first group of Soviet troops left between May and August 1988. The withdrawal was paused on 5 November 1988 because of attacks on Soviet troops. The second group left between 15 November 1988 and 15 February 1989. The last Soviet troops left on schedule on 15 February 1989. One of the final operations, "Typhoon," began on 23 January 1989 against the forces of Ahmad Shah Massoud, even though it broke an agreement with him. After the Soviets left, Afghan government forces were left to fight on their own, and the war continued.

Main article: Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)

After Soviet troops left in 1989, the government of Mohammad Najibullah stayed in power until 15 April 1992. On that day, Najibullah stepped down as Mujahideen guerrilla forces moved into Kabul during the first Afghan civil war. He tried to fly to India under U.N. protection, but he was not allowed to leave at the airport. He then took shelter at a United Nations compound in Kabul.

After a four-year power struggle between the groups that had opposed Najibullah, the Taliban took control of Kabul. On 26 September 1996, they entered the U.N. compound. Najibullah was later killed.

Aerial engagements

See also: List of Soviet aircraft losses during the Soviet–Afghan War

Main article: Spillover of Soviet - Afghan war in Pakistan

Pakistan Air Force F-16 jets shot down ten Soviet aircraft that had flown into Pakistani airspace. Soviet records confirmed only five of these losses. Some sources say the Pakistan Air Force shot down at least a dozen more, but these were never officially recognized. They happened over Afghanistan, and admitting them would have meant that Afghan airspace had been entered. In all, the F-16s shot down several planes of different types, while losing only one F-16.

The portable Stinger surface-to-air missile was introduced in September 1986. People still debate whether it was a turning point in the war. Many Western military experts believed it was very effective, and it was responsible for most of the more than 350 Soviet or Afghan government planes and helicopters shot down in the last two years of the war. Some experts called this the "Stinger effect." Congressman Charlie Wilson claimed that the Mujahideen never won a set piece battle before the Stinger, and never lost one after it arrived. However, these figures came from Mujahideen reports that may not be reliable, and many Russian military experts think the Stinger had less impact. Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev decided to withdraw from Afghanistan a year before the Mujahideen fired their first Stingers. This means the decision was driven by U.S. sanctions rather than military losses.

War crimes

Foreign involvement

Main article: Foreign involvement in the Soviet–Afghan War

The Afghan mujahideen were mainly supported by Pakistan, the United States, Saudi Arabia, and the United Kingdom. Because of this, the war became a Cold War proxy war, which means that countries fought through other groups instead of against each other directly. The United States, through Operation Cyclone, and Saudi Arabia gave the most government money. However, private donors and religious charities across the Muslim world, especially in the Persian Gulf, sent far more money to the Afghan rebels than any government did. Jason Burke writes that "as little as 25 per cent of the money for the Afghan jihad was actually supplied directly by states." Saudi Arabia matched the United States' public money dollar for dollar. At its highest, its private donations reached about $20 million per month.

The United Kingdom played a more direct part in the fighting. Through MI6 and the Special Air Service, it helped resistance groups in practical ways. Egypt and China also supported the mujahideen. Iran supported only the Shia mujahideen, including the Persian-speaking Shia Hazara groups, and it did so in a limited way. One of these groups was the Tehran Eight, a political union of Afghan Shia. The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) mostly supplied them. Iran's support for the Hazaras still made it harder to build a united mujahideen front.

Spillover

Main article: Raids inside the Soviet Union during the Soviet–Afghan War

Main article: Spillover of the Soviet–Afghan War in Pakistan

Main article: Badaber uprising

Main article: 1982 Harmak incident

In the spring of 1985, the Mujahideen began raids inside the Soviet Union. They hoped to stir up unrest among the Islamic peoples there. The Director of CIA William Casey and Britain's MI6 encouraged Mujahideen fighters to carry out sabotage raids, according to Robert Gates, Casey's executive assistant, and Mohammed Yousef, a Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) brigadier general who led Afghan operations.

The war also spread into Pakistan. Soviet aircraft flew into Pakistani airspace several times. Pakistan Air Force F-16 jets shot down Soviet aircraft that had entered their territory. Soviet records confirmed fewer of these shoot-downs than Pakistan claimed, including some Su-22, Su-25, An-26, and Mi-8 aircraft. Some sources say more aircraft were shot down, but these were not officially acknowledged because they happened over Afghanistan.

The Soviet Union and Afghanistan also used other ways to pressure Pakistan. The KhAD-KGB campaign was a joint effort by Afghanistan's KhAD and the Soviet KGB. It used spy networks, attacks, hijackings, and propaganda to discourage Pakistan from supporting the Afghan Mujahideen.

Other events also happened along the border. On 2 April 1986, a commando brigade of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan landed by accident inside Pakistan near Miram Shah instead of at Zhawar during the Second Battle of Zhawar. The force was surrounded, and 120 soldiers were taken prisoner along with six Mi-8 helicopters.

In April 1985, Soviet and Afghan prisoners of war held at the Badaber fortress near Peshawar tried to escape in an armed rebellion. They fought the Afghan Mujahideen, the Jamiat-e Islami party, and the Pakistani XI Corps, which was supported by American CIA advisors. The rebellion was stopped.

In 1982, Soviet forces accidentally entered Iran and destroyed an asphalt factory there. Iranian forces attacked them, destroying two Soviet Mi-8 helicopters.

Impact

From December 1979 to February 1989, about 620,000 soldiers served in Afghanistan, though only 80,000 to 104,000 were there at any one time. They came from the army, the KGB and its border troops, MVD Internal Troops, and the police. Many soldiers died, and many more became sick, often with hepatitis and typhoid fever. The Soviet side also lost many helicopters, tanks, IFV/APCs, and artillery guns and mortars. The war was very costly for the Soviet military. It also caused the deaths of many Afghans.

Main article: Atrocity crimes in the Soviet–Afghan War

The Geneva Accords of 1988 led to the Soviet withdrawal in early 1989. However, they did not settle how Afghanistan would be governed afterwards, and the country was left in ruins. It had already been one of the world's poorest countries before the war. Later, warlords and the Taliban rose to power amid the disorder. Forests were destroyed, pistachio trees were uprooted, and opium farming spread. Some Shias and refugees were left out of the government plans. The war also changed society. Guns, drugs, and terrorism became part of everyday life, and militarization led to heavily armed police and civil defense groups. Pashtuns, who had held the most power since the Durrani Empire was founded in 1747, lost influence to Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Hazaras.

Main articles: Afghan refugees and Afghans in Pakistan

The war forced 5.5 million Afghans to become refugees. This was about a third of the country's population before the war. They fled to Pakistan or Iran. By 1988, 3.3 million were living in Pakistan, including about 100,000 in Peshawar and more than two million in other parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Close to two million Afghans were living in Iran. Some refugees also reached North America, the European Union, and Australia. The photo of Sharbat Gula on the cover of National Geographic in 1985 became a symbol of both the conflict and the refugee crisis.

Aftermath

Main article: Consequences and legacy of the Soviet-Afghan War

Most sources agree that the Soviet–Afghan War was a political defeat for the Soviet Union. Some sources also say it was a military defeat for the Soviets. Modern writers do not all agree. Other sources say it was a political defeat for the Soviets but a military draw.

People often called the war the "Soviet Vietnam." Even so, the result was much harder on Afghanistan than a Soviet Vietnam would have been. The United States got through Vietnam, but the Soviets did not get through Afghanistan.

Media and popular culture

In Afghanistan, war rugs were a popular kind of carpet design. They were made by people who lived through the war.

Perception in Afghanistan

Main article: Consequences and legacy of the Soviet-Afghan War § Afghanistan

The war has left mixed feelings among Afghan people. Many Afghans see it as a victory over the Soviets and a source of pride. The Mujahideen Victory Day is a yearly holiday in Afghanistan, held on 28 April to remember the fall of the Soviet-backed government in 1992. However, people do not all agree about the day. Some honor the fighters and the sacrifices the Mujahideen made to defeat a major power. Others see the victory as the start of the 1990s civil war, a difficult time that divided the country politically and ethnically.

Perception in the former Soviet Union

Main article: Consequences and legacy of the Soviet-Afghan War § Legacy

The war had a long effect on the former Soviet Union and after it broke apart. Many people were lost, and many were left with physical disabilities. Drug addiction also spread widely across the USSR.

Each year on 15 February, Russia, Ukraine and Belarus remember the Soviet soldiers who died in Afghanistan and in other places. Veterans of the war are often called афганцы, Afgantsy, in Russian.